Difference between revisions of "Viewmaster"

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[[Image:Newsreel_Title_Shot_-_First_pictures_of_Norway.jpg|thumb|right|alt=War in Norway|[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B1Gt6hPuMaw&feature=player_embedded To watch a newsreel, click here.]]]
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[[File:Gruber1.jpg|right|Inventor from Portland, Oregon]]
  
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The newsreel was a short collection of nonfiction stories compiled on a single reel of film produced primarily between 1911 and 1967. A number of countries produced their own domestic newsreels, however this article focuses on American-made productions.  Usually included as part of a theatrical program including other shorts and a feature film, the newsreel covered an assortment of events and human interest stories that were directed at a national audience.  In peacetime regarded as a form of light entertainment, during World War II, it gained national significance as the primary source of news images of combat.  
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The Viewmaster is a personal stereo camera, popularized in contemporary culture as a children's toy for viewing 3-D images.  It has enjoyed a variety of uses since its introduction in 1939, ranging from military training to tourist memorabilia. While its applications have changed in the seven decades it has been produced, the technology has largely remained the same, circumventing some issues of compatibility.  
  
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Produced by motion picture studios, newsreels were not the sole source of news for American audiences; rather they presented a cinematic interpretation of the events of the day. Multiple factors, including reduced industry competition, censorship, and the increasing popularity of television news, contributed to the decline of the medium, and the last of the major newsreels ceased production in 1967. From the very beginning of its existence through its demise, the newsreel was caught between the impulse to entertain and the impulse to inform.
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==Timeline==
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[[File:Timeline3.jpg|alt text]]
  
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===Appearance===
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The first Viewmaster reels had blue outer circles and gold centers. Around 1940, production companies began making reels blue on the back side, and orange or tan on the front side. Only one year later, brown viewmaster reels became popular. Reels finally transitioned to white, the color that still sticks today. Despite all of these aesthetic adjustments, a reel from 1939 could still be used in a contemporary model and vice versa.
  
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===Development===
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[[File:Viewmaster3.jpg|200px|thumb|right|Model C]]
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The Viewmaster device began when William Gruber developed a camera capable of taking stereo photographs and drew the support of Harold Graves, president of Sawyer’s Photographic Services.  When Gruber and Graves introduced the Viewmaster at New York’s World Fair in 1939, it was meant as an alternative to the scenic postcards in which Sawyer’s had specialized.  Originally intended to enhance science and education, the role of the commercialized Viewmaster morphed.
  
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{|border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" align="right"
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The Viewmaster did not resemble the futuristic models of the past two decades until about 7 years into its public life, when the 'Model C' was released. This model was the first to allow the viewer to insert a reel directly, and was also the first to have a 'Lite Attachment'.  The technology for the product is that of the stereoscopic dual vision transparency, which is described as a “simple device that essentially make you go cross-eyed to perceive photographic depth”(Gizmodo). Each reel has fourteen pairs of images, resulting in 7 3-D images.  The Viewmaster was originally marketed to capture a personal experience, but developed into a more commercialized venture, with reels being produced for televisions shows ranging from Mary Tyler Moore to South Park.
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|+ '''Major Newsreels'''
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[[File:Southpark.jpg|200px|thumb|left|South Park]]
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|''Universal Newsreel''
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|''The March of Time''
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|''Hearst Metrotone News''
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|''Fox Movietone''
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|''Paramount News''
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|''Pathé News''
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===Binocular Vision===
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The viewmaster utilized binocular vision and stereoscopy to display images. Simply put, binocular vision is when both eyes are used together to view something. This system allows humans to determine whether various objects in the field of view are near or far, and what their distances are in comparison to other objects or landmarks. Due to this system, when one eye is closed it becomes much more difficult to clarify the distance of objects. The viewmaster works with stereoscopy, a technique that displays slightly different images to both eyes.  Looking at a pair of slightly different images in each eye, a 3-D effect is achieved through such stereopsis. Since one's eyes are positioned slightly differently on the head, the images one sees in everyday life are slightly different, but the brain meshes these two images together into one general picture. The angle of the cameras mimics the angle of one’s eyes, and shows two slightly different images to simulate what one's eyes would see in a normal field of view. The two images viewed independently by each eye are able to create a system of binocular vision, thus allowing one to see the image from the reel.
  
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==Reels & Offshoots==
  
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==Origins==
 
  
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===Silent Era===
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===Military Training===
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[[Image:Firstnewsreelad.jpg|thumb|right|alt=Pathé ad|Ad for the first newsreel produced in the U.S. for ''Pathé's Weekly'', which was released on August 8, 1911. "This announcement appeared in the July 29, 1911 issue of ''Moving Picture World''" (Fielding, 72).]]
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During World War II, the U.S. Government and the War Department agreed to a contract with the viewmaster company to produce millions of different types of viewmaster reels to train the U.S. Armed Forces, more specifically the navy and army. In the army, reels consisted mainly of gun range values, as well as models of Italian, British, Russian, Japanese, and German aircrafts. Several reels also included U.S. aircrafts to help servicemen become familiar with their own models. Army reels also portrayed potential landing regions in various countries to familiarize soldiers with possible deployment locations. The Navy also utilized viewmasters, mainly to portray planes and ships from America and from other nations so that servicemen could more easily spot opposing forces. Many segments of the forces had night studies in addition to day studies, so that servicemen would be more adept at spotting opposing forces in the dark. After the war, demand for viewmasters shot through the roof, and the production of reels for entertainment purposes began.
  
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An early form of non-fiction cinema, actualities, recorded unscripted moments, while news films captured events of historical significance or staged reenactments. These early cinematic products of Edison, Muybridge, Lumière, and others created a cinema of attractions that overtly acknowledged the spectator and played to the camera as described by Tom Gunning, professor of cinematic history at University of Chicago. Both genres declined in the United States, along with the nickelodean theater, as the feature length narrative film gained traction. The newsreel remediated the topical journalistic diversity of newspaper and radio news, the camera techniques of the actuality, the narrative devices of the news film, and the abbreviated length of the nickelodeon picture.
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Popular reels used by the Armed Forces included:
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* The North American “Mustang” (P-51 U.S. Army fighter plane)
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* The Consolidated "Coronado" (PB2Y-3 U.S. Navy Patrol Bomber)
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* The Fiat "Fiat G-50" (Italian Fighter Plane)
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* The Heinkel “He. 113” (German Fighter plane)
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* The Fairey “Barracuda” (British Torpedo Bomber)
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* The Mitsubishi “Sonia” (Type 96 ALB-R Japanese Light Bomber)
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* The Stormovik "Il-2" (Russian Dive Bomber)
  
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"The idea for the newsreel is credited to Leon Franconi, Charles Pathé's American-based confidential interpreter" (Fielding 69). Charles Pathé released French and British newsreels in 1910, with an American edition of ''Pathé's Weekly'' premiering on August 8, 1911. The Vitagraph Company, with over a decade of experience producing news films, released its newsreel, ''The Vitagraph Monthly of Current Events'', ten days later on August 18, 1911. Over the next decade a number of companies entered the newsreel market, only to find that the expense of cameras and processing apparatus impeded on profits.
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===Talking Reels===
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The first talking viewmaster model was produced in 1971 by GAF. This newly styled device had an attached speaker, and used reels with attached records. The viewing area consisted of a large screen, as opposed to the binocular-like structure utilized on older devices. After inserting the reel into the device the reel would display the first slide, and the user would be required to press a small white button located on the viewmaster, which would synchronize the record to the picture frame. The new viewmaster design also included a volume bar on the side, which would trigger the needle on the record.  
  
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By 1925 two major Hollywood studios--Fox Film Corporation and Universal Studios, in association with Hearst Corporation--and two independent producers--Pathé and Educational Pictures, Inc.--were producing newsreels. Two other Hollywood studios entered the field in 1927, Paramount and Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer (MGM) in association with Hearst, just as sound pictures were on the rise.
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[[File:TalkingViewmaster.jpg|thumb|The Original Talking Viewmaster]]
  
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===The Introduction of Sound===
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====How The Talking Reel Functioned====
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The round speaker inside the viewmaster would produce vibrations and send them from the record to the back of the reel. This section would be constantly rotating, causing the vibrations to be transmitted through a rod and a spring, all the way to the speaker. The vibrations would be released from the speaker as the commentary or sound effects according to the picture that was being displayed.
  
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Fox's ''Movietone News'' was the first to release an all-sound newsreel on October 28, 1927, after testing the technology with two sound news films, recording celebrations of Charles Lindbergh's record flights. The addition of the integrated audio design element changed the structure of the newsreel, because narration and music could now be used to provide transition between segments. Narrators spoke in voice-over and directly to the audience setting the tone of the story and influencing interpretation. "Such was the initial popularity of the sound film newsreel that, with one notable exception, by 1931 every major producer had converted to sound. The exception was Kinograms" (Fielding 185). That newsreels were sourced from Hollywood Studios and now had the ability to add artificial non-diegetic sound effects complicated the question of the authenticity of the picture and illustrated the slippage between news and fiction.
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====Newer Versions of the Talking Reels====
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In 1984, a new style of the talking viewmaster was created by GAF. The new model included a handle for easy use, and a much smaller screen. The speaker and volume bar were still included, although in different locations than the older talking viewmaster. To operate the new viewmaster the user would insert the reel, which would be followed by a beeping sound which would only diminish once the user selected the first picture. Commentary would then commence for each picture, with a beeping sound notifying the user to move forward to the next picture. Once the user had seen all of the slides, a talking voice would commence, instructing the user to remove the reel from the device.  
  
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==Production and Technology==
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In 1997 TYCO created their own version of the talking viewmaster, which operated on batteries and used a much more compact design. The user would place a cartridge in the device, and a microchip would play commentary or a sound effect while the reel of film would continuously move, therefore the user was not required to do anything but sit back and watch.
  
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===Religious Reels===
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In the 1940s, a lineup of religious reels was introduced, consisting of actors dressing up and acting as characters in several stories from the Bible.
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Some of these stories were:
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* The Birth of the Savior
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* Prodigal Son.
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* Birth of Jesus
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* The Holy Land
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* Noah’s Ark
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* The Rich Man and Poor Lazarus
  
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===Film Technology===
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Some reels also depicted the history behind specific holidays like Christmas and Easter, while also providing some comic relief in addition to purely factual information. A reel of the tale "A Christmas Carol" was also released.  
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[[Image:Pathecam.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Pathé camera|A 16mm Pathé camera, the "Pathé webo." Manufactured from 1946 until 1960. Literally a black box.]]
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Other religious reels also went into more in-depth stories, such as the Passion Play and the life of Pope Piux X. The religious reels served as a purely educational service, with one man even claiming that he ranked his viewmaster as his "Greatest Bible Teacher, with [his] father's sermons a close second..."
  
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To record images film cameras spool celluloid film 16 millimeters wide (almost 3/4 inch) between two smaller reels, mechanically drawing undeveloped film before an aperture. The camera mechanism allows direct mimetic light impressions through its lens, where these imprint and adhere to the receptive surface of the film.  After the reel is in the can–-a tin container protecting it from further exposure–-the visual impressions are sealed onto the film surface through a chemical development process. The resulting document, a motion picture, consists of a serial sequence of discrete photographs, viewed by rapid projection at a rate of 24 frames per second.  Historically, the human visual perception was systematized in relation to visual apparatuses extensively in the 19th century, as Jonathan Crary has discussed in ''Techniques of the Observer'', such that perception became understood as the visual apprehension of minute differences through time. Film’s motion is only apparent, produced artificially. The film is severed, spliced, and affixed into segments of precise lengths to create a composed sequence. 
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===Viewmaster Projector ===
  
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Film exhibits a particular dynamic between what German media archaeologist Siegfried Zielinski calls dioptric and catoptric optics, a distinction descending from Euclid (85). Celluloid film is dioptric in that its substrate is transparent.  It can be backlit by a bright light to refract a displaced image; in fact it must be backlit in order to be visible. Yet the image as cinema is also not visible without an opaque, typically bright surface to be projected on, such as a reflective screen; in this sense it is catoptric.  
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[[File:Cam vm instru stereom.jpg|frame|Viewmaster Projector]]
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Most viewmaster projectors created by the Sawyers were relatively simple and did not require much manual labor. The first one was created in the late 1940's, and it consisted of a lens, an arrow pointer, and a window to display the title of the picture. In the 1950's the S-1 model was created, but was similar in style to the orignial version. It did include a new and more sophisticated lens, as well as a carrying case. Some of the other models that were created included: The junior projector, the Custom 300, the Deluxe 100, the Standard 30, the Diplomat, and the Entertainer.
  
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===Collecting Footage===
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The Stereo-Matic 500 was created in 1953, and was widely recognized as the top of the line projector. The Stereo-matic allowed one to project viewmaster reels in 3-D and functioned rather simply; the user would push the reel into the slot onto the project, and lower a lever and turn a knobto focus the slide. The lever had three different positions: A, B, and C, and each one controlled a different function in terms of focusing. The Stereo-Matic package also introduced several accessories, including polarized viewing glasses, a carrying case, and a camera.
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[[Image:Dope_sheet.jpeg|thumb|right|alt=Dope Sheet|A Fox Movietone News dope sheet, used by cameramen to take notes while filming. [http://sc.edu/library/digital/collections/movietone.html Click here to see more dope sheets.]]]
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Employees of the newsreel organizations collected the majority of footage used in the newsreels. Some cameramen were sent out on specific assignments (ball games, visits from royalty, contests, etc.) and others had a specific beat to cover and would collect anything of interest they might encounter. While collecting the material, the cameraman would fill out a ''dope sheet'', listing the different shots recorded on that reel of film. The amount of commentary and contextual information provided in these dope sheets varied; however related newspaper clippings or other information were attached to assist the editors.
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Projectors were advertised as “Low-Cost” while “completing enjoyment,” in either the standard, deluxe, or junior version. - Life Magazine, Issue from January 26, 1959.
  
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Foreign governmental regulations and inhospitable subjects put restrictions on collecting footage. Americans were forbidden by Nazi Germany to film in their country, and the Nanking government of China was also restricted on newsreel cameramen out of concern for the unregulated future presentation of the recorded material. Domestic events also posed difficulties because “strikers and rioters often singled out newsreelmen for their wrath, since the footage photographed under such circumstances often ended up in the district attorney, who used it for prosecution and the securing of injunctions" (Fielding 277). Production companies typically never placed restrictions on what could be filmed, but would encourage the filming of all “newsworthy” events. Editors shaped the footage to match company's point of view. It was not uncommon for the studios to pay amateurs for footage they may have collected, particularly to have exclusive access to the material. In one instance a cameraman paid $7,500 cash (almost $117,000 in today's dollars) to a local amateur who had caught about 1000 feet of film of a Japanese earthquake (Scott).
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===Viewmaster Personal Camera===
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The viewmaster camera was created in the 1950’s to allow users to create their own ‘Personal reels.’ Each picture taken would produce two images, and the cut-outs would be placed in pockets and created into reels. This invention allowed users to control what they saw in their viewmasters, as opposed to merely buying mass produced reels of the same types of images. The personal camera was advertised as being able to take “brilliant, full color stereo pictures in thrilling ‘come to life’ realism, for less than the cost of ordinary black and white snapshots." - Popular Science Magazine, March 1953
  
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Starting in 1930 despite competing for audiences, American and foreign production companies found sharing footage to be advantageous. “The coverage of scheduled events was carefully preplanned by all five newsreel producers, sometimes in concert, weeks in advance” leading to “a monotonous similarity of newsreel content…to an increasing extent [as] each of the 5 newsreel companies began screening identical footage” (Fielding 270-271). One writer in 1936 noted, “’If one of ''Pathe''’s cameras had broken down…probably Fox or Universal would have helped out with an extra print’” (271).
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==Economic Perspective==
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[[File:Ad1960.jpg|300px|thumb|left|Ad from Life Magazine, January 26,1959]]
  
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Cameramen unionizing contributed to a communal view toward footage. Normal Alley and Eric Mayell, representing Universal and Fox, filmed the bombing of the American gunboat Panay in 1937 together. The two cooperated in the filming and follow-up coverage as well as agreed to “guard each other’s footage in the event of an unforeseen catastrophe” (272). Under the rota pool-coverage system, introduced in the 1930s, cameramen were guaranteed the opportunity to cover an event under the condition that all footage had to be shared among all newsreel producers. During WWII, the pool system helped distribute footage of battles and war events to all theaters.
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[[File:Ad1997.jpg|300px|thumb|right|Ad from InfoWorld Magazine, October 13,1997]]
  
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Colonel William Mason Wright, head of the Pictorial Branch of the Bureau of Public Relations of the Department of War, described the mechanics of the rota system:
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==The Business of Stereoscopic Viewing==
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While the Viewmaster enjoys relatively little competition in the stereoscopic viewer market today, this wasn’t always the case.  Sawyer’s acquired its main competitor, Tru-Vu, in 1951 and began its dominance.  Fifteen years later, in 1966 this was interrupted when General Aniline & Film bought out Sawyer’s and the rights to the Viewmaster.  The Viewmaster switched hands again and was for a short while an independent entity, the View-Master International Group (VMI) before being sold to Tyco.  As a result of Tyco’s merger with Mattel Inc., the Viewmaster was moved to the Fisher-Price brand where it exists today.  Where as originally it was manufactured in the Portland, Oregon area, with the move to Fisher-Price the Viewmaster has since been made in Mexico. 
  
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At their peek in the 1950's and 60's, Viewmaster advertisements could be found in magazine such as Life, Popular Science, and Popular Mechanics, among others.  What started out as making your own three dimensional pictures transitioned to standardized reels to supplement personal collections.  They pitched their images as 'vivid', 'come to life realism', and 'simulating the real viewing experience', but also used angles related to family interaction and memories of past vacations.
  
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“I propose the idea of pooling our resources for the duration of the war. If each newsreel company will provide us with two cameramen for each theater of operations, I think we can adequately cover all theaters. The work of all cameramen will be censored and processed by the War Department and the Navy Department, and then distributed to the five newsreel organizations, along with all of the work of the Army and Navy cameramen. You will use all the same films, of course, and there will be no more competition among you, but we feel that this is the only way of bringing the war in film to the American people” (274).
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One of the most important points when examining the history of the Viewmaster is the acquisition of its main competitor Tru-Vu. This acquisition isn't crucial because it allowed Sawyer's to comfortably expand and develop its offerings, but because with it came the licensing rights to Walk Disney Studios.  These rights set up the next step in stereoscopic viewing.
  
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==Evolution into a Child's Toy==
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Early uses of the viewmaster included World War II preparation and travel souvenirs, however companies soon analyzed the business angle and realized the viewmaster's potential as a popular child's toy. In 1951, the viewmaster obtained a license to begin making reels based on Disney characters, and from that other television and film concepts arose. In 1966, the Sawyer’s company was acquired by General Aniline and Film Corporation (GAF) and viewmaster reels made the complete shift from scenery and travel interests to entertainment, primarily for children.
  
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The majority of combat footage during WWII was filmed by United States Signal Corps and Navy photographers, many of whom were trained by newsreel companies (288).
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[[File:Cars.jpg|thumb|Reels from the movie "Cars"]]
  
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===Editing===
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Viewmaster reels in the area of Disney classics became extremely popular, with movies like Toy Story, Beauty & the Beast, The Lion King, Winnie the Pooh, Cinderella and Snow White, as well as newer films like The Princess and the Frog, Ratatouille and Cars with reels out on the market.
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Non-Disney reels in the field of entertainment and cartoons were also prominent. Characters like Woody Woodpecker, Tom & Jerry, the Captain Under the Sea, Barbie and dinosaurs from Jurassic Park had their own reels created.
  
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{|border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" align="right"
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Reels depicting fairy and folk tales also became popular, especially in the 1950's. They provided a new style, one different from those of scenery and even Disney characters, as each reel told the story of the fairy tale, as opposed to providing random pictures with no chronological order. One could buy reels with images of Robin Hood and Friar Tuck, Goldilocks and the three bears, Little Red Riding Hood, The Three Little Pigs, Jack & the Beanstalk and even Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer.
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|+ '''Genres of Segments'''
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|Combat
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|War at Home
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|Oddities
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|Fashion
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|Sports
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|Disasters
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Reels of footage were mailed from the field to the editors' offices. Sound and narration was added as the content was juxtaposed with other stories to form a finished reel to be distributed to theaters. The reference materials available to the editors when writing the scripts and assembling the stories were the notes on the dope sheet and any attached documents. Thus the commentary on the events was editorially constructed or reflected the tone or opinions of previously published newspaper accounts. Additionally, the importance of a fast turn around time for newsreels made verifying the facts difficult.
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Another style of reels depicted images of Disneyland, with pictures for all of the different areas of the theme park, including Frontierland, Adventureland, Tomorrowland, and Main Street U.S.A. These reels acted as a sort of boundary between the shift from scenic and landscape reels, towards reels that provided entertainment and portrayed movie and characters and cartoons. The Disneyland reels can be classified as scenery, yet at the same time they can be classified as cartoons or entertainment.
  
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The need for each of the studios to have the freshest, most up-to-date news led to technical innovation to speed up the process. One fascinating example is a "flying picture laboratory," that contained technology to develop and edit both moving picture film and photos for newspaper distribution. Post-production of the material could be completed on the plane and the finished product could be dropped off at various stops along the flight route ("Newsreel is Finished in Monoplane").
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==Nostalgia==
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[[File:Winnie the Pooh.jpeg|thumb|Winnie the Pooh Viewmaster Set]]
  
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Although in later years it was possible for the cameramen to record sound simultaneously, the cumbersome nature of bringing along the sound equipment along with the necessity to be accompanied by a sound technician led many cameramen to collect soundless footage. Editors then used stock sounds to bring the film to life. A newspaper article from 1938 describes how the sound of a waterfall was used along with footage of fire-hoses and sounds of an Italian naval destroyer siren were used in place of fireboats (Desmond).  
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The viewmaster can be considered one of the most nostalgic memorabilia, since it has been around for over 70 years. The most prominent group of viewmaster users consists of individuals in their 30's, 40's and 50's, individuals who were children right at the time the viewmaster began creating reels for entertainment purposes (1950s-60s). As these adults take their kids to the toy store to buy them various other toys that the children now prefer over viewmasters, adults begin to feel nostalgia.  
  
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===Internal Censorship===
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===Contemporary Testimonial===
  
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Newsreel companies exercised self-censorship when constructing the final products. In 1931 Fox ruled “that its theaters and newsreels could not show scenes of a ‘controversial nature…on which reaction might be divided’” (Fielding 278). In 1938 there was a similar move when Warner Bros. banned their 425 theaters from showing a newsreel pertaining to Nazi Germany claiming it was "not good policy" to show it. This ban, however, was lifted in Chicago, and theaters owned by other studios were free to make their own call ("Warner Theaters Ban Film on Nazis"). Editorial newsreel censorship also favored showing celebrities and political figures in a positive light, such as not portraying President Roosevelt in his wheelchair, or  not showing the short King Victor Emanuel of Italy being lifted onto his horse.
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"I bought 5 of these for my little cousins, ages 3-5 for Christmas. The little ones (the 3 yr olds) really enjoyed this gift and their parents (my first cousins) appreciated the nostalgia. The 5 yr. olds were bored quickly. I purchased just the ViewMaster itself and then found reels at an online specialty toy company that had a huge selection and the reels were slightly less expensive too. The ViewMaster seems smaller than I remember, but it could be that my head got bigger since I last used mine! They all arrived nicely boxed and were all in good working order." - Amazon Review, 2008
  
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Self-censoring aimed to prevent a public frenzy, such as the Paramount filming of a 1937 Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO, a coalition of unions) strike, during which police shot protesters. Paramount’s editor, A.J. Richard, said of his decision to not show the footage: “…whereas newspapers reach individuals in the home, we show a public gathered in groups averaging 1,000 or more, and therefore subject to crowd hysteria while assembled in the theatre” (282).  Richard’s decision caused U.S. Senator Robert La Follette Jr., chairman of the Senate Civil Liberties Committee to subpoena the footage, which led Paramount to release it in a newsreel. Banned by Chicago police, the reel was shown elsewhere in the United States.
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==Decline of the Viewmaster==
  
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==Distribution and Regulation==
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Currently ‘Model O’ is in production, but the basic design behind the product hasn’t changed much in the 70+ years and 1.5 billion viewers sold since its invention. Sales have dropped off and some estimate that the product only brings in 10 million per year, causing the arm devoted to scenic reels to be amputated(Whiteman). But this isn't the end of the iconic toy.  There exists a large secondary market for older models of the cameras, personalized reels, and what appears to be a movement to 3-D porn. The University of Missouri recently bought 2,500 Viewfinders in their black and gold to promote their football team. Reels are being circulated for star players who might be up for awards such as the Heisman Trophy(Miller). The Viewmaster is a unique marketing technique that could latch onto the recent 3-D movement in film.  
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[[Image:Newsreelad.jpg|thumb|right|alt=Newsreel ad|Australian newsreel ad from 1951 for the Star Theatrette, [http://filmbunnies.wordpress.com/ Found here.]]]
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During the first year of production, 1911, Charles Pathé issued 95 prints of each newsreel and distributed them through the Keith-Albee and Orpheum circuits (Fielding 75). On June 8, 1914, Pathé had begun to rent its newsreels directly to exhibitors and introduced a daily supplement newsreel service. However, this service had a very limited run, only through the outbreak of World War I. Most newsreels including ''Fox Movietone'' and ''The March of Time'' were distributed twice weekly to film theaters for projection before a narrative feature alongside other short segments.  
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===A Second Life on the Big Screen===
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While the Viewmaster may no longer be the flavor of the week, it has established a following of enthusiasts and drawn on the nostalgia of a user-base that is now in their adulthood.  
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In July 2009, Dreamworrks Studios announced its intention to buy the movie rights to the Viewmaster with the intent of making a family-friendly film based on the popular children’s toy. The film will be written by Brad Caleb Kane and produced by Roberto Orci and Alex Kurtzman, of Transformers’ fame. Its release date is tentatively set for 2012 (Kit, Fernandez).  
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[[File:ViewSlogan.jpg|300px|thumb|right|Ad from Life Magazine, January 26,1959]]
  
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By the 1940s a standard theatrical package, known as the "staple program," typically consisted of a featured attraction preceded by some combination of newsreel, cartoon, travelogue, featurette, serial, singalong, and trailer. (Doherty 9). Before the Paramount Decree of 1948, studios had direct distribution access to their vertically integrated theaters, contributing to the rise of the Hollywood-produced reels and the decline of competition from independent producers. After the decision, however, all producers were forced to market to the now independently owned theaters.
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==References==
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Baum, Josh. "How Does the Fisher-Price ViewMaster Work? | EHow.com." EHow | How To Do Just About Everything! | How To Videos & Articles. Web. 04 Oct. 2010. <http://www.ehow.com/how-does_4796227_fisherprice-viewmaster-work.html>.
  
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While most newsreels screened before feature movies, there were other distribution platforms. The newsreel theater exclusively showed programs of assorted shorts. These programs, about an hour long, featured collections of the major studios' newsreels, along with other short entertainments such as cartoons and recordings of musical performances (Schallert). Newsreels were also viewed outside the theater environment at various community locations or events. For example, some schools had regular newsreel screenings for students ("Newsreels To Be Shown In Schools").
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"Bible Stories & Religious." ViewMaster, 3D Glasses, 3D Stereo Photography. Web. 04 Oct. 2010. <http://www.3dstereo.com/viewmaster/vvr-bib.html>.
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While almost everything produced ended up in theaters, censorship was not unheard of. The censorship of newsreel distribution occurred as early as the 1930s on both national and international levels. Foreign governments commonly banned American newsreels, such as in 1933 when the British government claimed that U.S. newsreels were “’objectionable news pictures’” and threatened to stop airing them, referring to a newsreel that showed the re-enactment of the Brooke Hart murder case. However, during the 1930s, New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Kansas, Maryland, and Florida developed censorship committees, which previewed films before allowing them to be screened publicly. The committees would recommend edits to newsreels before allowing them to be shown. In 1935, Louisiana passed a censorship act at the persistence of Senator Huey Long after a ''March of Time'' newsreel was made criticizing Long’s career, and Ohio censored a newsreel because they feared it was anti-Nazi ("Ohio Censors Newsreel, Claiming It 'Anti-Nazi'"). In 1953, it was estimated “that the newsreel industry could save fifty thousand dollars a year if censor-board review were abolished in the state of Ohio alone” (Fielding 286).  
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In response to state-mandated censorship, newsreel companies would boycott certain states in protest. Universal held a camera boycott and refused to film news in Ohio. Around the same time during the 1950s, “public and legislative opinion began to form…against all forms of motion picture censorship” (286). In 1952, soon after the case of ''Joseph Burstyn v. Wilson'', during which an Italian film distributor, Burstyn secured a temporary injunction against New York’s license commissioner Edward T. McCaffrey. Soon after the Supreme Court of New York ruled that McCaffrey, “nor any other municipal official could interfere with the exhibition of a motion picture that had already received an official license from the New York State censors” (Jowett, 263). After the court ruling, newsreels were excluded from censorship laws in Virginia, Maryland, Florida, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, and Ohio.
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==Newsreels in Wartime==
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[[Image:Filmplane.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Cameraman in Plane|"An American Air Corps cameraman sights through the open bomb bay of a B-24 Liberator on a run over enemy territory, 1943" (Fielding 299).]]
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In peacetime, shorts shown before a theatrical feature offered the viewer diverting forms of entertainment. During World War II, newsreel war-related topics dominated newsreels and served several important functions for civilians:  to spread news; to dramatize news; and to unite civilians at home to the cause of the war abroad. "By 1944, according to Paramount News, 77% of its total content was devoted to war news…” (Fielding 289). The ostensible content of newsreels was informational, yet the real purpose was to dramatize the news.  Especially during World War II in Europe and the Pacific, airplane delivery took 10-14 days to bring images back to the US.  Radio and newspaper continued as the main sources of news, while newsreels provided visual spectacle of the same topics. Because newsreels addressed audiences in the context of feature films, they adopted many of the same narrative techniques.
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During the war, the US government acknowledged raised stakes in establishing nationalism. All newsreel war footage was sent to Washington for review before being edited and distributed by producers. Pictures of events were not released until months or, in the case of the attack on Pearl Harbor, a year after the event occurred. Because of government intervention, “the footage which military officers did release was frequently dull and lifeless” (295). Changing the length of newsreels also affected production and hindered the newsreel industry. The government decided to shorten the length because of a lack of stock footage, since they were mainly concentrating on shooting war events. Newsreel length went from “900 to 750 feet during the period of 1942-45 and from 750 to 700 feet in 1945” (295).
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This wartime lens painted the world in starkly polarized social tones of "good" versus "evil." Roeder cites one government official who described this centrality of message control as a "strategy of truth"(2). Roeder proposes to see this dynamic in terms of "war as a way of seeing" (81). To promote both inspiration and involvement, the government sought a positive message, involving an optimistic, one-sided tone. In theaters across the nation, audiences witnessed a film serial like no other: "our boys," plucky and virtuous, picked fights of a lifetime with conniving "Japs" and sinister Nazis for the right side of history.
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The government control stymied competition between producers. “Under the rota system the government furnished every foot of film on combat that was released and made it available equally to all interested producers” (Fielding 294). This lack of competition and the government’s control over filming led to a sameness in coverage that caused newsreel theaters to suffer. The theaters attracted audiences “only because of the intense general interest in war news, as well as promotion schemes such as that which provided free photographic enlargements from combat footage to customers who recognized relatives and loved ones in the films” (294). Additionally, the United States financed its own newsreel for foreign viewers, called ''United Newsreel''. This reel was released in sixteen languages and in both allied-countries and captured territories to act as pro-American propaganda.
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The film industry and the American public took newsreels seriously for the first time. According to one 1940s journalist, “’the newsreels very likely reached their peak of effectiveness during the war because they were made and supervised largely by individuals and government agencies genuinely concerned with the tremendous drama of global war’” (291).
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==Decline of the Newsreel==
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[[Image:Equipment.jpg|thumb|right|alt=Filming of Elizabeth II|"The newsreel had one last moment of glory--the coronation of Elizabeth II of England in 1953...shown is all of the equipment used by just one company, Pathé, to film the event" (Fielding, 304).]]
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As positively as World War II newsreels were received by critics and audiences, homogenization in coverage, censorship, the government-implemented shortening of newsreel film length, and a lack of controversial issues all contributed to the demise of the medium.
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===Homogeneity===
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The rota pool and cameraman union led to homogeneity across the different newsreels. This sameness started as early as the 1930s, when major news events were covered by all major newsreel organizations. Although the rota system officially ended in 1945, newsreel producers continued to buy content from other companies, because it was cheaper than producing their own. Thus, the different productions continued to lack diversity, even as other factors made the medium less enticing.
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===Consequences of Censorship===
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Censorship affected film production and exhibition since its initiation in the 19th century, but “with the addition of sound and the growth of the political, economic, and military tensions in the 1930s, censorship became even more frequent, severe, and inevitable” (Fielding 276). Newsreels were not immune. This censorship took many forms, as discussed above, including the control of cameramen, editorial control during the production, and the control of distribution and exhibition.
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After the war newsreel companies were not able to generate the same sensational and controversial footage, thus losing a spark necessary for public interest and causing a decrease in popularity. Newsreel companies attempted to recover from these events by making changes, such as offering color newsreels, but these changes did not save the companies from further decline.
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===TV News and the End===
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The introduction and proliferation of television in the 1940s was dismissed by newsreel companies as amateurish. In 1952, Charles Lazarus wrote in ''Motion Picture Herald,'' “theatrical newsreels are expertly and smoothly edited and presented with no interruptions, whereas TV footage all too often is catch-as-catch-can with the presentation interrupted by commercial” (Fielding 305). Television had been broadcasting news events since the 1930s, and one American trade paper commented in 1935 that “against [TV’s] time delay of only about one minute…ordinary newsreels cannot compete. The only hope, then, of the newsreel industry is to improve the technique of newsreel production” (306). Newsreel companies experimented with techniques in the 1930s to transmit footage quickly, as an attempt to provide “live” coverage, but failed due to the restrictions of film.  After WWII, the quality of television news coverage improved greatly, and by 1950 many newsreel theaters were closing. On November 6, 1949, New York’s Embassy Newsreel Theater closed, after having sold over 11 million admissions in its 20 years of existence (307). Newsreel companies began to acknowledge the competition of TV news and began providing footage to television stations.  Overall, the film industry was panicked by the popularity of television, and box office sales suffered.
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By 1953 the newsreel “had sunk so low that parent studios required their own newsreels to feature pseudo-news coverage of gala premieres and publicity events which advertised their own features” (308). In 1951, the newsreel program ''The March of Time'' ended and turned to creating a television news program, while in 1956 ''Warner Pathé News'' stopped production (308). In the 1960s Fox Movietone and Hearst Metrotone also stopped production, and finally on December 26, 1967, Universal Newsreel, now the oldest newsreel company, aired its final piece (309).
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===The Afterlife of Newsreels===
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[[Image:Burnsthewar.jpg|thumb|left|alt="The War" documentary|Ken Burns' ''The War'' is a 2007 documentary relying heavily on WWII stock newsreel footage.]]
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While they cannot be assumed to exhibit a consistent documentary validity, newsreels have nevertheless become valuable as historical documents.  Due in part to the widespread distribution of the films and the economic need to produce new ones frequently, newsreel cameramen often captured the only moving visual record of certain historical events. Apart from historians, the newsreel film record has public relevance now, as much is publicly available.  As archives modernize, an increasing amount of footage is becoming freely available on the internet. In 1976, Universal Studios gave all Universal Newsreel material to the National Archives, making it public domain (Universal News Reels).  Much newsreel footage similarly became public domain as stock footage after it fell out of regular use.  Among the largest sources of stock footage is the US government, as all video footage shot by the military, NASA, and other agencies has also become public domain.
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Its status as primary source material has made newsreel footage commonly used in historical documentaries.  Study and interest in early and mid-twentieth century events such as the Hindenberg disaster and the speeches of Franklin Delano Roosevelt have kept newsreel footage present in the 21st century. A cultural nostalgia about World War II and its "greatest generation," for example, appears to have created a cottage industry around the subject which relies on this footage, as can be seen in recent productions by institutions such as the BBC, the History Channel, and Ken Burns.
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Newsreels have also been used by fictional entertainment productions to set a contextual stage. For example ''Star Trek: Enterprise'' used computer editing to create a newsreel depicting Hitler in New York City to add authenticity to a storyline that suggested history had been changed and the Nazis had gained control of the US. The recent Pixar movie, ''Up'', on the other hand, featured a computer animated newsreel that highlighted the era depicted and also served to demonstrate the rather spectacular nature of newsreels themselves.
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[[Image:UpImage.jpg|thumb|right|alt="Up"|A character reacts to watching a newsreel in the 2009 Pixar movie ''Up''. The newsreel subsequently changed the character's life.]]
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==References==
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Crary, Jonathan. ''Techniques of the Observer.'' Cambridge: MIT Press, 1990. Print.
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Desmond, Robert W. "News About the Newsreel." Christian Science Monitor 28 Set. 1938: WM5. PDF.  
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Distefano, Anne Marie. "A View-Master View of Anatomy." The Trib Online. The Portland Tribune, 02 July 2009. Web. 03 Oct. 2010. <http://thetribonline.org/features/story.php?story_id=124648069540255500>.
  
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Doherty, Thomas Patrick. ''Projections of War: Hollywood, American Culture, and World War II.'' New York: Columbia University Press, 1999. Print.
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Happy Gifter. "Classic Model L Was a Hit with the 3 Yr. Olds." Amazon.com: Online Shopping for Electronics, Apparel, Computers, Books, DVDs & More. 29 Dec. 2008. Web. 04 Oct. 2010. <http://www.amazon.com/ViewMaster-Classic-Model-Blue-Viewer/dp/B000K65NU6/ref=sr_1_2?s=toys-and-games&ie=UTF8&qid=1286148679&sr=1-2>.
  
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Fielding, Raymond. ''The American Newsreel, 1911-1967.'' Norman, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press, 1972. Print.
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Inventors of the Viewmaster. Photograph. Web. 3 Oct. 2010. <http://www.eighties.fr/jeux-et-jouets/359-view-master.html>.
  
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Hanssen, Eirik Frisvold. "Symptoms of desire: colour, costume, and commodities in fashion newsreels of the 1910s and 1920s." ''Film History.'' 21 (2009): 107-121. ''Project Muse.'' Web. 4 March 2010.
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Jane. "View-Master Meets Its Beastmaster « The Itty Bitty Hearing Trumpet." The Itty Bitty Hearing Trumpet. 18 Mar. 2009. Web. 04 Oct. 2010. <http://ittybittyhearingtrumpet.wordpress.com/2009/03/18/view-master-meets-its-beastmaster/>.
  
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MovieTone News: The War Years. The University of South Carolina and Lib. of Congress, 29 May 2008. Web. 8 Mar. 2010. <http://sc.edu/library/digital/collections/movietone.html>.
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Kit, Borys, and Jay A. Fernandez. "DreamWorks Eyes View-Master Pic | DreamWorks Studios." Home | DreamWorks Studios. The Hollywood Reporter, 06 July 2009. Web. 04 Oct. 2010. <http://dreamworksstudios.com/news/dreamworks-eyes-view-master-pic>.
  
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"Newsreel is Finished in Monoplane." The Washington Post 8 July 1928: 49. PDF.
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"LIFE." Google Books. 26 Jan. 1959. Web. 04 Oct. 2010. <http://books.google.com/books?id=dlQEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA89&dq=viewmaster&hl=en&ei=lk-pTKaWHsKclgedu_jcDA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=8&ved=0CE8Q6AEwBw#v=onepage&q&f=false>.
  
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"Newsreels To Be Shown In State Public Schools." The Hartford Courant 29 Sept. 1951: 6. PDF.  
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Miller, Phillip, "Chase Daniel View Master" 12 Sep. 2008 <http://marketpower.typepad.com/market_power/2008/09/chase-daniel-vi.html>
  
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"Ohio Censors Newsreel, Claiming It 'Anti-Nazi'." The Hartford Courant 27 Oct. 1935: 11. PDF.
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"Popular Science." Google Books. Mar. 1953. Web. 04 Oct. 2010. <http://books.google.com/books?id=xywDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA255&dq=viewmaster&hl=en&ei=lk-pTKaWHsKclgedu_jcDA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CD8Q6AEwAw#v=onepage&q&f=false>.
  
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Roeder, George H., Jr. ''The Censored War: American Visual Experience During World War Two''. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1993. Print.
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Sell, Wolfgang, and Mary Ann Sell. "View-Master Home Page." The Viewmaster Homepage. May 2008. Web. 04 Oct. 2010. <http://www.cinti.net/~vmmasell/welcome.html>.
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20th Century Stereo Viewers - Www.viewmaster.co.uk. Web. 04 Oct. 2010. <http://www.viewmaster.co.uk/index.asp>.
  
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Scott, John. "Newsreel Men Unsung Heroes of Film Front." Los Angeles Times 21 Aug. 1932: B15. PDF.
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Viewmaster "Stereo-matic 500" 3-D Projector. Digital image. Vmresrouce. U.S. Patent. Web. 4 Oct. 2010. <http://www.vmresource.com/manuals/projector.pdf>.
  
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Schallert, Edwin. "News View Theater Opens With Special Subjects." 3 May 1940: 18. PDF.
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"Viewmaster UK" 20th Century Stereo Viewers - Www.viewmaster.co.uk. Web. 04 Oct. 2010. <http://www.viewmaster.co.uk/htm/camera.asp>.
  
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Universal News Reels. Internet Archives. Web. 28 Feb. 2010. <http://www.archive.org/details/universal_newsreels>.
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"View-Master | National Toy Hall of Fame." Home | National Toy Hall of Fame. Web. 04 Oct. 2010. <http://www.toyhalloffame.org/toys/view-master>.
  
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"Warner Theaters Ban Films on Nazis." The Atlanta Constitution 21 Jan. 1938: 9. PDF.
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"View-Master Reels." Marriott - Home. Web. 04 Oct. 2010. <http://www.marriottcameras.co.uk/viewmaster/vm04_reels.htm>.
  
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Zielinski, Siegfried. ''Deep Time of the Media: Toward an Archaeology of Hearing and Seeing by Technical Means''. Cambridge: The MIT Press, 2006. Print.
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Whiteman, Doug. "View-Master, an Icon of Souvenirs since 1939, Enters Nonscenic Era." The New York Times. 04 Apr. 2009. Web. 04 Oct. 2010. <http://www.nytimes.com/2009/03/04/business/worldbusiness/04iht-view.4.20593331.html>.
  
 
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Latest revision as of 10:42, 24 November 2010

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The Viewmaster is a personal stereo camera, popularized in contemporary culture as a children's toy for viewing 3-D images. It has enjoyed a variety of uses since its introduction in 1939, ranging from military training to tourist memorabilia. While its applications have changed in the seven decades it has been produced, the technology has largely remained the same, circumventing some issues of compatibility.

Timeline

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Appearance

The first Viewmaster reels had blue outer circles and gold centers. Around 1940, production companies began making reels blue on the back side, and orange or tan on the front side. Only one year later, brown viewmaster reels became popular. Reels finally transitioned to white, the color that still sticks today. Despite all of these aesthetic adjustments, a reel from 1939 could still be used in a contemporary model and vice versa.

Development

Model C

The Viewmaster device began when William Gruber developed a camera capable of taking stereo photographs and drew the support of Harold Graves, president of Sawyer’s Photographic Services. When Gruber and Graves introduced the Viewmaster at New York’s World Fair in 1939, it was meant as an alternative to the scenic postcards in which Sawyer’s had specialized. Originally intended to enhance science and education, the role of the commercialized Viewmaster morphed.

The Viewmaster did not resemble the futuristic models of the past two decades until about 7 years into its public life, when the 'Model C' was released. This model was the first to allow the viewer to insert a reel directly, and was also the first to have a 'Lite Attachment'. The technology for the product is that of the stereoscopic dual vision transparency, which is described as a “simple device that essentially make you go cross-eyed to perceive photographic depth”(Gizmodo). Each reel has fourteen pairs of images, resulting in 7 3-D images. The Viewmaster was originally marketed to capture a personal experience, but developed into a more commercialized venture, with reels being produced for televisions shows ranging from Mary Tyler Moore to South Park.

South Park

Binocular Vision

The viewmaster utilized binocular vision and stereoscopy to display images. Simply put, binocular vision is when both eyes are used together to view something. This system allows humans to determine whether various objects in the field of view are near or far, and what their distances are in comparison to other objects or landmarks. Due to this system, when one eye is closed it becomes much more difficult to clarify the distance of objects. The viewmaster works with stereoscopy, a technique that displays slightly different images to both eyes. Looking at a pair of slightly different images in each eye, a 3-D effect is achieved through such stereopsis. Since one's eyes are positioned slightly differently on the head, the images one sees in everyday life are slightly different, but the brain meshes these two images together into one general picture. The angle of the cameras mimics the angle of one’s eyes, and shows two slightly different images to simulate what one's eyes would see in a normal field of view. The two images viewed independently by each eye are able to create a system of binocular vision, thus allowing one to see the image from the reel.

Reels & Offshoots

Military Training

During World War II, the U.S. Government and the War Department agreed to a contract with the viewmaster company to produce millions of different types of viewmaster reels to train the U.S. Armed Forces, more specifically the navy and army. In the army, reels consisted mainly of gun range values, as well as models of Italian, British, Russian, Japanese, and German aircrafts. Several reels also included U.S. aircrafts to help servicemen become familiar with their own models. Army reels also portrayed potential landing regions in various countries to familiarize soldiers with possible deployment locations. The Navy also utilized viewmasters, mainly to portray planes and ships from America and from other nations so that servicemen could more easily spot opposing forces. Many segments of the forces had night studies in addition to day studies, so that servicemen would be more adept at spotting opposing forces in the dark. After the war, demand for viewmasters shot through the roof, and the production of reels for entertainment purposes began.

Popular reels used by the Armed Forces included:

  • The North American “Mustang” (P-51 U.S. Army fighter plane)
  • The Consolidated "Coronado" (PB2Y-3 U.S. Navy Patrol Bomber)
  • The Fiat "Fiat G-50" (Italian Fighter Plane)
  • The Heinkel “He. 113” (German Fighter plane)
  • The Fairey “Barracuda” (British Torpedo Bomber)
  • The Mitsubishi “Sonia” (Type 96 ALB-R Japanese Light Bomber)
  • The Stormovik "Il-2" (Russian Dive Bomber)

Talking Reels

The first talking viewmaster model was produced in 1971 by GAF. This newly styled device had an attached speaker, and used reels with attached records. The viewing area consisted of a large screen, as opposed to the binocular-like structure utilized on older devices. After inserting the reel into the device the reel would display the first slide, and the user would be required to press a small white button located on the viewmaster, which would synchronize the record to the picture frame. The new viewmaster design also included a volume bar on the side, which would trigger the needle on the record.

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The Original Talking Viewmaster

How The Talking Reel Functioned

The round speaker inside the viewmaster would produce vibrations and send them from the record to the back of the reel. This section would be constantly rotating, causing the vibrations to be transmitted through a rod and a spring, all the way to the speaker. The vibrations would be released from the speaker as the commentary or sound effects according to the picture that was being displayed.

Newer Versions of the Talking Reels

In 1984, a new style of the talking viewmaster was created by GAF. The new model included a handle for easy use, and a much smaller screen. The speaker and volume bar were still included, although in different locations than the older talking viewmaster. To operate the new viewmaster the user would insert the reel, which would be followed by a beeping sound which would only diminish once the user selected the first picture. Commentary would then commence for each picture, with a beeping sound notifying the user to move forward to the next picture. Once the user had seen all of the slides, a talking voice would commence, instructing the user to remove the reel from the device.

In 1997 TYCO created their own version of the talking viewmaster, which operated on batteries and used a much more compact design. The user would place a cartridge in the device, and a microchip would play commentary or a sound effect while the reel of film would continuously move, therefore the user was not required to do anything but sit back and watch.

Religious Reels

In the 1940s, a lineup of religious reels was introduced, consisting of actors dressing up and acting as characters in several stories from the Bible. Some of these stories were:

  • The Birth of the Savior
  • Prodigal Son.
  • Birth of Jesus
  • The Holy Land
  • Noah’s Ark
  • The Rich Man and Poor Lazarus

Some reels also depicted the history behind specific holidays like Christmas and Easter, while also providing some comic relief in addition to purely factual information. A reel of the tale "A Christmas Carol" was also released. Other religious reels also went into more in-depth stories, such as the Passion Play and the life of Pope Piux X. The religious reels served as a purely educational service, with one man even claiming that he ranked his viewmaster as his "Greatest Bible Teacher, with [his] father's sermons a close second..."

Viewmaster Projector

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Viewmaster Projector

Most viewmaster projectors created by the Sawyers were relatively simple and did not require much manual labor. The first one was created in the late 1940's, and it consisted of a lens, an arrow pointer, and a window to display the title of the picture. In the 1950's the S-1 model was created, but was similar in style to the orignial version. It did include a new and more sophisticated lens, as well as a carrying case. Some of the other models that were created included: The junior projector, the Custom 300, the Deluxe 100, the Standard 30, the Diplomat, and the Entertainer.

The Stereo-Matic 500 was created in 1953, and was widely recognized as the top of the line projector. The Stereo-matic allowed one to project viewmaster reels in 3-D and functioned rather simply; the user would push the reel into the slot onto the project, and lower a lever and turn a knobto focus the slide. The lever had three different positions: A, B, and C, and each one controlled a different function in terms of focusing. The Stereo-Matic package also introduced several accessories, including polarized viewing glasses, a carrying case, and a camera.

Projectors were advertised as “Low-Cost” while “completing enjoyment,” in either the standard, deluxe, or junior version. - Life Magazine, Issue from January 26, 1959.

Viewmaster Personal Camera

The viewmaster camera was created in the 1950’s to allow users to create their own ‘Personal reels.’ Each picture taken would produce two images, and the cut-outs would be placed in pockets and created into reels. This invention allowed users to control what they saw in their viewmasters, as opposed to merely buying mass produced reels of the same types of images. The personal camera was advertised as being able to take “brilliant, full color stereo pictures in thrilling ‘come to life’ realism, for less than the cost of ordinary black and white snapshots." - Popular Science Magazine, March 1953

Economic Perspective

Ad from Life Magazine, January 26,1959
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Ad from InfoWorld Magazine, October 13,1997

The Business of Stereoscopic Viewing

While the Viewmaster enjoys relatively little competition in the stereoscopic viewer market today, this wasn’t always the case. Sawyer’s acquired its main competitor, Tru-Vu, in 1951 and began its dominance. Fifteen years later, in 1966 this was interrupted when General Aniline & Film bought out Sawyer’s and the rights to the Viewmaster. The Viewmaster switched hands again and was for a short while an independent entity, the View-Master International Group (VMI) before being sold to Tyco. As a result of Tyco’s merger with Mattel Inc., the Viewmaster was moved to the Fisher-Price brand where it exists today. Where as originally it was manufactured in the Portland, Oregon area, with the move to Fisher-Price the Viewmaster has since been made in Mexico.

At their peek in the 1950's and 60's, Viewmaster advertisements could be found in magazine such as Life, Popular Science, and Popular Mechanics, among others. What started out as making your own three dimensional pictures transitioned to standardized reels to supplement personal collections. They pitched their images as 'vivid', 'come to life realism', and 'simulating the real viewing experience', but also used angles related to family interaction and memories of past vacations.

One of the most important points when examining the history of the Viewmaster is the acquisition of its main competitor Tru-Vu. This acquisition isn't crucial because it allowed Sawyer's to comfortably expand and develop its offerings, but because with it came the licensing rights to Walk Disney Studios. These rights set up the next step in stereoscopic viewing.

Evolution into a Child's Toy

Early uses of the viewmaster included World War II preparation and travel souvenirs, however companies soon analyzed the business angle and realized the viewmaster's potential as a popular child's toy. In 1951, the viewmaster obtained a license to begin making reels based on Disney characters, and from that other television and film concepts arose. In 1966, the Sawyer’s company was acquired by General Aniline and Film Corporation (GAF) and viewmaster reels made the complete shift from scenery and travel interests to entertainment, primarily for children.

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Reels from the movie "Cars"

Viewmaster reels in the area of Disney classics became extremely popular, with movies like Toy Story, Beauty & the Beast, The Lion King, Winnie the Pooh, Cinderella and Snow White, as well as newer films like The Princess and the Frog, Ratatouille and Cars with reels out on the market. Non-Disney reels in the field of entertainment and cartoons were also prominent. Characters like Woody Woodpecker, Tom & Jerry, the Captain Under the Sea, Barbie and dinosaurs from Jurassic Park had their own reels created.

Reels depicting fairy and folk tales also became popular, especially in the 1950's. They provided a new style, one different from those of scenery and even Disney characters, as each reel told the story of the fairy tale, as opposed to providing random pictures with no chronological order. One could buy reels with images of Robin Hood and Friar Tuck, Goldilocks and the three bears, Little Red Riding Hood, The Three Little Pigs, Jack & the Beanstalk and even Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer.

Another style of reels depicted images of Disneyland, with pictures for all of the different areas of the theme park, including Frontierland, Adventureland, Tomorrowland, and Main Street U.S.A. These reels acted as a sort of boundary between the shift from scenic and landscape reels, towards reels that provided entertainment and portrayed movie and characters and cartoons. The Disneyland reels can be classified as scenery, yet at the same time they can be classified as cartoons or entertainment.

Nostalgia

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Winnie the Pooh Viewmaster Set

The viewmaster can be considered one of the most nostalgic memorabilia, since it has been around for over 70 years. The most prominent group of viewmaster users consists of individuals in their 30's, 40's and 50's, individuals who were children right at the time the viewmaster began creating reels for entertainment purposes (1950s-60s). As these adults take their kids to the toy store to buy them various other toys that the children now prefer over viewmasters, adults begin to feel nostalgia.

Contemporary Testimonial

"I bought 5 of these for my little cousins, ages 3-5 for Christmas. The little ones (the 3 yr olds) really enjoyed this gift and their parents (my first cousins) appreciated the nostalgia. The 5 yr. olds were bored quickly. I purchased just the ViewMaster itself and then found reels at an online specialty toy company that had a huge selection and the reels were slightly less expensive too. The ViewMaster seems smaller than I remember, but it could be that my head got bigger since I last used mine! They all arrived nicely boxed and were all in good working order." - Amazon Review, 2008

Decline of the Viewmaster

Currently ‘Model O’ is in production, but the basic design behind the product hasn’t changed much in the 70+ years and 1.5 billion viewers sold since its invention. Sales have dropped off and some estimate that the product only brings in 10 million per year, causing the arm devoted to scenic reels to be amputated(Whiteman). But this isn't the end of the iconic toy. There exists a large secondary market for older models of the cameras, personalized reels, and what appears to be a movement to 3-D porn. The University of Missouri recently bought 2,500 Viewfinders in their black and gold to promote their football team. Reels are being circulated for star players who might be up for awards such as the Heisman Trophy(Miller). The Viewmaster is a unique marketing technique that could latch onto the recent 3-D movement in film.

A Second Life on the Big Screen

While the Viewmaster may no longer be the flavor of the week, it has established a following of enthusiasts and drawn on the nostalgia of a user-base that is now in their adulthood. In July 2009, Dreamworrks Studios announced its intention to buy the movie rights to the Viewmaster with the intent of making a family-friendly film based on the popular children’s toy. The film will be written by Brad Caleb Kane and produced by Roberto Orci and Alex Kurtzman, of Transformers’ fame. Its release date is tentatively set for 2012 (Kit, Fernandez).

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Ad from Life Magazine, January 26,1959

References

Baum, Josh. "How Does the Fisher-Price ViewMaster Work? | EHow.com." EHow | How To Do Just About Everything! | How To Videos & Articles. Web. 04 Oct. 2010. <http://www.ehow.com/how-does_4796227_fisherprice-viewmaster-work.html>.

"Bible Stories & Religious." ViewMaster, 3D Glasses, 3D Stereo Photography. Web. 04 Oct. 2010. <http://www.3dstereo.com/viewmaster/vvr-bib.html>.

Distefano, Anne Marie. "A View-Master View of Anatomy." The Trib Online. The Portland Tribune, 02 July 2009. Web. 03 Oct. 2010. <http://thetribonline.org/features/story.php?story_id=124648069540255500>.

Happy Gifter. "Classic Model L Was a Hit with the 3 Yr. Olds." Amazon.com: Online Shopping for Electronics, Apparel, Computers, Books, DVDs & More. 29 Dec. 2008. Web. 04 Oct. 2010. <http://www.amazon.com/ViewMaster-Classic-Model-Blue-Viewer/dp/B000K65NU6/ref=sr_1_2?s=toys-and-games&ie=UTF8&qid=1286148679&sr=1-2>.

Inventors of the Viewmaster. Photograph. Web. 3 Oct. 2010. <http://www.eighties.fr/jeux-et-jouets/359-view-master.html>.

Jane. "View-Master Meets Its Beastmaster « The Itty Bitty Hearing Trumpet." The Itty Bitty Hearing Trumpet. 18 Mar. 2009. Web. 04 Oct. 2010. <http://ittybittyhearingtrumpet.wordpress.com/2009/03/18/view-master-meets-its-beastmaster/>.

Kit, Borys, and Jay A. Fernandez. "DreamWorks Eyes View-Master Pic | DreamWorks Studios." Home | DreamWorks Studios. The Hollywood Reporter, 06 July 2009. Web. 04 Oct. 2010. <http://dreamworksstudios.com/news/dreamworks-eyes-view-master-pic>.

"LIFE." Google Books. 26 Jan. 1959. Web. 04 Oct. 2010. <http://books.google.com/books?id=dlQEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA89&dq=viewmaster&hl=en&ei=lk-pTKaWHsKclgedu_jcDA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=8&ved=0CE8Q6AEwBw#v=onepage&q&f=false>.

Miller, Phillip, "Chase Daniel View Master" 12 Sep. 2008 <http://marketpower.typepad.com/market_power/2008/09/chase-daniel-vi.html>

"Popular Science." Google Books. Mar. 1953. Web. 04 Oct. 2010. <http://books.google.com/books?id=xywDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA255&dq=viewmaster&hl=en&ei=lk-pTKaWHsKclgedu_jcDA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CD8Q6AEwAw#v=onepage&q&f=false>.

Sell, Wolfgang, and Mary Ann Sell. "View-Master Home Page." The Viewmaster Homepage. May 2008. Web. 04 Oct. 2010. <http://www.cinti.net/~vmmasell/welcome.html>. 20th Century Stereo Viewers - Www.viewmaster.co.uk. Web. 04 Oct. 2010. <http://www.viewmaster.co.uk/index.asp>.

Viewmaster "Stereo-matic 500" 3-D Projector. Digital image. Vmresrouce. U.S. Patent. Web. 4 Oct. 2010. <http://www.vmresource.com/manuals/projector.pdf>.

"Viewmaster UK" 20th Century Stereo Viewers - Www.viewmaster.co.uk. Web. 04 Oct. 2010. <http://www.viewmaster.co.uk/htm/camera.asp>.

"View-Master | National Toy Hall of Fame." Home | National Toy Hall of Fame. Web. 04 Oct. 2010. <http://www.toyhalloffame.org/toys/view-master>.

"View-Master Reels." Marriott - Home. Web. 04 Oct. 2010. <http://www.marriottcameras.co.uk/viewmaster/vm04_reels.htm>.

Whiteman, Doug. "View-Master, an Icon of Souvenirs since 1939, Enters Nonscenic Era." The New York Times. 04 Apr. 2009. Web. 04 Oct. 2010. <http://www.nytimes.com/2009/03/04/business/worldbusiness/04iht-view.4.20593331.html>.

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