http://www.cultureandcommunication.org/deadmedia/api.php?action=feedcontributions&user=Torpille&feedformat=atomDead Media Archive - User contributions [en]2024-03-28T20:04:50ZUser contributionsMediaWiki 1.25.2http://www.cultureandcommunication.org/deadmedia/index.php?title=Secretarial_Letter_Dictation&diff=6499Secretarial Letter Dictation2009-03-20T00:12:02Z<p>Torpille: /* Secretary as mediums */</p>
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<div>== Basics of secretarial positions ==<br />
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Secretarial work, in one form or another, has existed since writing has existed; scribes were the first incarnation, followed by clerks. With the commercialization of the typewriter in the late 1800s and their adoption in the 1900s, record-keeping and composition became increasingly integral to modern businesess and organizations. Originally, most outgoing business correspondence was handled by business owners and a hired clerk, and was usually handwritten (Yates 25). This was an incredibly time consuming, laborious process, and made record keeping confusing, as all incoming and outgoing communication was hand copied so it was impractical to keep more than one comprehensive book of correspondence (Yates 38). Speedwriting and stenography along with typing skills sped up the process of bureaucracy and were delegated to women, particularly young women, in the 1900s. <br />
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The origins of the word secretary are generally agreed to be related to secret-keeping and trust. According to Edward Jones Kilduff, the word secretary "has its origin in common with the word secret, for both are derived from the Latin word secretus, which means private, secret, or pertaining to private or secret matters. Hence came the general definition of secretary as a person who is intrusted with private or secret matters; a confidential officer or attendant; a confidant" (Kilduff 3).<br />
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== Secretaries as mediums ==<br />
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In a sense, secretarial work is a kind of 'medium' in and of itself. Secretaries receive communications from all types of sources; it is up to the secretary to determine which communications are the most pressing, and which do not deserve attention, and forward the important communications to the boss. Communications between businesses, especially letters, were not usually written by the businesspeople themselves--rather, the businessperson would speak (dictate) what was in the letter while the secretary/stenographer would write in shorthand what her supervisor dictated, and then type the letter on a typewriter with correct 'form,' meaning correcting any grammatical errors, formatting, spelling, detail work, etc. Essentially mail communications would go from a businessman to his secretary to another secretary to the businessman she represented. This was also true of phone calls and visitors: all communications had to pass through the secretary before reaching the intended recipient.<br />
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Secretaries themselves still exist, but their duties have changed drastically due to email communications, word processing, and various other technologies. Letter dictation in particular is now incredibly rare, perhaps because of the common use of word processing technologies which drastically reduce the time needed to compose documents. Like the demise of the scribe due to increased literacy and printing, the stenographic duties of the secretary have diminished due to computing technologies. However, stenographers (using stenographic typewriters) are still in use in the legal system alongside voice-to-speech technology in case of computer failure.<br />
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== Stenography in secretarial duties ==<br />
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Stenography, or the practice of transcribing spoken word, was essential to the duties of a secretary, and a fast speed (usually of 100 words per minute), was desirable. "Except in the instances of college graduates, of persons who have received a specialized training in secretarial work, and of those who posess some exceptional qualification (a knowledge of financial matters or the ability to write well, for example), it is very difficult to obtain a position as a real private secretary without first having served an apprenticeship as a stenographer" (Kilduff 358).<br />
[[Image:gregg.jpg|thumb|left]]<br />
The importance of stenography, and particularly accurate stenography, for the secretary was expressed by George E. Roberts, vice president of National City Bank of New York City, "If my stenographer is not wholly accurate and dependable in transcribing her notes--her share of this mutual work--the effectiveness of my letter suffers. Through carelessness she has made me appear to say things I did not say, she has inclined my reader to the belief that I am ungrammatical, and by her inaccuracies in typing she has caused my letter to make an unfavorable impression. [...] Letter writing is an important function in business, and is becoming of greater importance because of the fact that transactions carried on by means of letters are rapidly increasing in number. The personal contact between a business house and its customers that existed in former years is being supplanted by a contact by letters. And all of this means that we must today make our letters more efficient. To do so we must enlist the coöperation of our stenographers to perform efficiently their share of the work of getting out good letters--letters that are accurate in transcription, correct in spelling, grammar, and punctuation, and pleasing in appearance" (Kilduff 13). This excerpt suggests that secretaries only copied exactly what was written, but frequently part of their duty was to correct wording, phrasing, and grammar, and know all of the correct formats, sort of like what Microsoft Word does with its Paperclip helper.<br />
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Many different types of speedwriting and [[shorthand]] exist, including the Pitman and Graham styles. College courses on shorthand were a popular choice for young women, and considered to be very practical. An example of this is in Sylvia Plath's novel ''The Bell Jar'', in which the Plath-based protagonist Esther's mother encourages Esther to take shorthand instead of trying to be a poet. Esther rejects this, seeing shorthand as a sure way into a subservient lifestyle.<br />
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Typically pens were utilized more by secretaries than pencils, because the pen required less muscular exertion, allowed for faster movements, preserved better than pencil marks, and were generally more legible (Gregg 46). Other tools involved in the dictation process include the steno notebook.<br />
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== The typewriter's role in the growth of the secretary ==<br />
[[Image:typist.jpg|thumb|right|Female typist, 1926 (Yates 40)]]<br />
In 1890, the U.S. Census reported 33,000 people employed as stenographers/typists, and by 1900, there were 134,000 people employed as stenographers, typists, and secretaries. In 1910, that number doubled; and in 1920 doubled again--786,000 secretaries (Yates 43). The typewriter allowed for a massive boom in the amount of women in the workforce: in 1871, only four percent of total commercial (business skills) school was female, and by 1900, that number leaped to 36 percent (Yates 44).<br />
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Before the typewriter, letters were usually drafted and finalized by the composer of the letter--that is to say, the writer (the one who thought up the source of the material) and the writer (the one who performed the physical act of writing) were one in the same. With the advent of the typewriter, the two acts were separated entirely. According to Yates, the typewriter allowed "increasing subdivision of tasks and specialization of jobs, with the techniques of systematic management to coordinate the various specialized elements" in order to maximize efficiency. The typewriter further reduced the amount of time spent by highly paid executives on letter-writing, instead moving that task to lesser-paid secretarial workers (44). <br />
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With the popularization of personal computers and word processing, this separation of composing and typing has again merged, as executives can easily write their own letters and internal communication is done increasingly through e-mail.<br />
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== Secretary as extension of self ==<br />
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What is particularly interesting about the secretary as a medium was the focus on her appearances, or 'poise.' While secretarial handbooks emphasize fast typing and shorthand skills along with organizational skills, each book has lengthly sections on the presentation of a secretary. As is expected, secretaries had dress requirements like we do today in offices, but even more requests on the attributes of secretaries were made. For example, a desired quality among secretaries was a pleasing voice, and to smile. Becker encourages secretaries to be 'phonogeninc' while on the telephone, at least until "television becomes a practical commercial reality" for telecommunications (73). Particular posture was requested--"Draping yourself about furniture, or leaning against files or doors as if they were lampposts is similarly condemned" (Becker 106)--and only pale nailpolish acceptable. One secretary recommends wearing blue frequently, as "[m]en almost universally like blue" (103). <br />
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Manners were also essential, and women were thought to be much better at mannered speech and behavior than men, and more adept at being 'channels.' Edward Kilduff explains, "In so far as any general statement can be true, male secretaries are more likely not to possess suitable manners than are female secretaries; perhaps because it is man's nature to be more unrestrained and more independent than women, perhaps because men are not so sensitive to the effects of manners as women are and hence do not appreciate their value." Men, essentially, made bad mediums because they are too independent, more productive, and more creative than women.<br />
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The work a secretary did, particularly letters, were not signed by secretaries but rather bosses, and it was important that they and their work was reflective of their employers. The secretary, ideally, was to be involved, but not necessarily thought of as a 'producer' of content--only visible as an extension rather than authority: "Letters are an expression of an executive's personality. Don't you, as a secretary, quickly spot any flaws that come to your employer's desk? Don't you judge other secretaries and their employers by the kind of letters they mail from their offices?" (Becker 11)<br />
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The ideal secretary was one who was trustworthy with private data, efficient, reliable, and attractive. She, as one employer describes in ''Secretaries Who Succeed'', served as "an extension of my own brain" (37). This sentiment has been echoed in the present with new technologies such as the iPhone, Blackberries, and laptops--all of which similarly serve as both status symbols, secret-keepers, transmitters of data, and as extensions of one's consciousness.<br />
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== Letter dictation in pop culture ==<br />
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In ''Monty Python's Flying Circus'' episode 33 (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hf0FFAFqle8) letter dictation is parodied. Biggles dictates a letter to his secretary, who is confused as to exactly what words to transcribe in this exchange:<br />
[[Image:biggles.jpg|thumb|right|Biggles puts on antlers to indicate he is not dictating]]<br />
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'''Biggles.''' Just put down what I say.<br />
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'''Secretary.''' Do I put that down?<br />
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'''Biggles.''' Of course you don't put that down.<br />
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'''Secretary.''' Well what about that?<br />
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'''Biggles.''' Look. Don't put that down. Just put down - wait a mo - wait a mo. (puts on his antlers) Now, when I've got these antlers on - when I've got these antlers on I am dictating and when I take them off (takes antlers off) I am not dictating.<br />
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'''Secretary.''' (types) I am not dictating.<br />
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'''Biggles.''' What? (puts the antlers on) Read that back.<br />
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'''Secretary.''' Dear King Haakon, I am not dictating what?<br />
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'''Biggles.''' No, no, no, you loopy brothel inmate.<br />
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== References ==<br />
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Becker, Esther R. ''Secretaries Who Succeed''. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1947.<br />
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Charters, W. W. and Isadore B. Whitley. ''Summary of Report on Analysis of Secretarial Duties and Traits.'' New York: The National Junior Personell Service, Inc., 1924.<br />
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Doutt, Howard M. ''Secretarial Science''. Chicago: Richard D. Irwin, Inc., 1944.<br />
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"Episode 33." ''Monty Python's Flying Circus.'' BBC. 30 Nov 1972.<br />
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Kilduff, Edward Jones. ''The Private Secretary''. New York: D. Appleton-Century Company, 1924.<br />
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Pitman, Isaac. ''New Standard Dictation Course.'' New York: Pittman & Sons, 1933.<br />
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Yates, JoAnne. ''Control Through Communication.'' Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989.</div>Torpillehttp://www.cultureandcommunication.org/deadmedia/index.php?title=Old_Color_Spaces&diff=6349Old Color Spaces2008-12-03T22:16:41Z<p>Torpille: /* Colorimeters */</p>
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<div>The color space is a graphic and numerical representation of colors and their relationship to one another. The purpose of the chart is to standardize and quantify what is frequently a subjective experience. Detailed color standards are commonly used in product development and design arenas; standards become outdated rapidly as new products are developed. Color spaces and standards assist in "express[ing] a given color [of an object] accurately, describ[ing] that color to another person, and hav[ing] that person correctly reproduce the color we perceive" (Konica Minolta 1). <br />
<br />
==COLOR BASICS==<br />
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'''HSB or The “Three Dimensions” of Color'''<br />
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(Gerritsen/Microsoft)<br />
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HSB stands for Hue-Saturation-Brightness and is a color model dependent upon a color wheel and the percentage of the amount of white present in a designated hue. <br />
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===Hue===<br />
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Hue is color itself as it is placed on a color wheel where each color has a percentage. Red is at 0o, yellow is 60o, green is 120o, etc. This percentage coincides with the frequency of light waves reflected of any given object for that color in respects to the color spectrum. Each tone group (red, green, etc) can than be affected by saturation and brightness in order to vary its shade and intensity. <br />
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===Saturation===<br />
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Often given as a percentage, saturation is the intensity of color for a specific hue. It can also be described as how different a color is from grey at any lightness. Colors that are more vivid are considered more saturated while colors that are more muddled and closer to grey are less saturated. <br />
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===Brightness===<br />
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Brightness of an object is a difficult thing to measure because it is perceived. While looking at a computer screen in a dark room, colors appear brighter than if the room was well lit. But generally, brightness measures the luminosity of a color. <br />
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===Additive Color Mixing===<br />
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[[Image:additive.jpg|thumb|left|Additive Color Mixing]]<br />
Additive color systems, such as RGB, mix the three primary colors together as a way to produce more colors. The secondary colors of cyan, magenta and yellow are results of mixing two of the three primary colors together. White is created when all three of the primary colors are mixed together proportionately. The additive color theory was discovered by James Clerk Maxwell in conjunction with a photographer, Thomas Sutton. Maxwell had Sutton photograph a piece of ribbon three times, each with a different filter over the lens (one red, one blue, one green). He then projected each image from a different projector onto a common screen. The three separate images then formed a complete one with full coloring. <br />
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===Subtractive Color Mixing===<br />
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[[Image:subtractive.jpg|thumb|right|Subtractive Color Mixing]]<br />
Louis Ducos du Hauron was responsible for the discovery of the subtractive color theory. Subtractive color mixing removes some colors from white light while allowing others to pass. The CYMK model is an example of a subtractive color space. It uses cyan, yellow, magenta and black to create colors. When white light is passed through one of these secondary and subtractive color filters, two of the primary colors which form the secondary color are transmitted through the filter and the third one is absorbed. When equal amounts of all the subtractive colors overlap, all primary colors are blocked and black is produced. Subtractive color mixing is more advantageous than additive because of its ability to create more colors. When the proportion of overlapping filters is changed, almost any color can be created. Viewing equipment for subtractive coloring is also cheaper (Kirsch 28-35).<br />
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==The Munsell System==<br />
===Brief Bio===<br />
Albert H. Munsell lived from 1858-1918 in Boston, MA. He attended Massachusetts Normal Art School (now Massachusetts College of Art), where he later became a member of the faculty. Although the color system he began developing is widely used by scientists and artists alike, Munsell did not consider himself a scientist. He was a trained painter frustrated with the lack of color descriptions and a systematic color scheme. Munsell began developing his color system when he was a teaching aid for color composition students. As the system became more advanced, Munsell was able to share his color distinction system with well-respected scientists and engineers around Boston. He published “A Color Notation” in 1905, which described his system so far. Munsell wanted his system to be used in a broad sense, rather than only in science and art. His goal was to use it to teach concepts of color to primary school students. Unfortunately, Munsell’s health began to decline in 1914 and he passed away in Boston in 1918 at the age of 60. After his death, Dorothy Nickerson (who first worked as secretary to Munsell’s son) worked to adapt the Munsell Color System. The charts could finally be put to widespread use 30 years after Munsell died. (Landa)<br />
===The System===<br />
The Munsell system is now the most widely used and accepted color system. All other color systems that arise are compared to the Munsell System, which has come to be known as the standard color system. The system builds on the guiding principle of equal visual perception. This is the idea that we all perceive colors differently, but the system accounts for any small discrepancies based on comparison to a grayscale, assuming the eyes seek the balance of grayscale (Evans). The system is able to describe all possible colors in terms of three coordinates:<br />
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1. Munsell Hue: the quality of a color described at red, yellow, blue and so on<br />
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2. Munsell Value: the place where a color falls in terms of lightness when compared to a scale of grays from white to black<br />
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3. Munsell Chroma: the degree of difference between a color and a gray of the same value.<br />
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The Munsell Book of Color is a compilation of color samples, usually arranged in pages of a book, or on a color “tree.” The Munsell Value is vertical in a display and the Munsell Chroma is horizontal. The scale of grays can be considered the “trunk” of the color tree, going from white on top to black on the bottom. <br />
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[[image: Munsell_tree.jpg|thumb|center|200px|Munsell Tree]], [[image: Munsell_tree_pages.jpg|thumb|center|200px|Munsell Book]], [[image: Munsell_tree_round.jpg|thumb|center|200px|Munsell Tree]]<br />
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Each sample has a Munsell Notation, which tells us its position on the tree. The notation consists of three symbols that represent Munsell Hue, Munsell Value, and Munsell Chroma. <br />
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[[image: Munsell_notation.jpg|thumb|left|300px|An example of Munsell Notation]]<br />
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The Munsell System is the most accepted color system because colors are not limited to the samples shown, whereas other color systems are. Any color that can be conceived will fit into the Munsell System. (Billmeyer and Saltzman)<br />
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==Natural Color System & Color Opponency==<br />
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===Color Opponency===<br />
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[[Image:coloropponent.jpg|thumb|left|Color Opponency]]<br />
The Natural Color System is based upon the color opponent theory. The color opponent theory focuses on the uniqueness of four hues and their inability to be described simultaneously. R.W.G. Hunt describes color opponency:<br />
“The hues red, yellow, green and blue are said to be unique because they cannot be described in terms of any combinations of other color names. Thus, for instance, although orange can be described as a yellowish red or reddish yellow, red cannot be described as a yellowish blue or a bluish yellow. In fact the four unique hues comprise two pairs, red and green, and yellow and blue; the colors in each of these pairs are opponent, in the sense that they cannot both be perceived simultaneously as component parts of any one color. That is, it is impossible to have a reddish green, or a greenish red, or a yellowish blue, or a bluish yellow. But yellowish reds… greenish yellows… bluish reds are all possible (140-141).”<br />
Black and white are also used in the color opponent theory to determine variations of light and dark.<br />
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===NCS===<br />
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[[Image:NCSNotation.jpg|thumb|right|NCS Notation]]<br />
The Natural Color System was developed by the Scandinavian Color Institute. Using NCS a color is measured based upon its percentage in comparison to a color opponent pair. A color therefore that is purely red and has no green is at 100% red. Darkness of a color and saturation are also taken into consideration when measuring the color being presented. A sample notation taken from the NCS website is shown to the right. The letter S in front simply means that the NCS is responsible for measuring a specific color.[[Image:NCSWheel.jpg|thumb|left|NCS Color Wheel]] The nuance describes the “degree of resemblance to whiteness and blackness.” Chromaticness puts the color at a grey. The ten percent blackness thus mean that there is 40 percent whiteness in the color. The Y90R describes the hue of the color. This example shows a yellowish color with 90 percent red. The ten percent yellow is than inferred (Hunt 141-143/The NCS System). <br />
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==The CIE Color Spaces==<br />
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[[Image:cielab.jpg|thumb|left|CIE Yxy]]<br />
In 1931, the Commission Internationale de l'Eclairage (CIE) devised the Yxy color space, and in 1976 created the L*a*b* to "provide more uniform color differences in relation to visual differences" (Konica Minolta 14). The CIE systems are used in conjunction with a colorimeter.<br />
===CIE Yxy===<br />
The Yxy color space is based on the three-component theory of color vision, which places red, green, and blue as the primary color receptors in the eye. All other colors are combinations of those three primary colors. Because lightness and darkness cannot be taken into consideration with RGB values, a third variable, Y lightness, makes up the Yxy system. Moving towards the center of the graph increases lightness; moving toward the edges increases chromaticity (another word for saturation). (Konica Minolta 16)<br />
===CIE L*a*b*===<br />
[[Image:Yxy.jpg|thumb|right|CIE Lab showing the variables]]The CIE L*a*b* color space was invented because the original Yxy color space had a problem: "equal distances on the x, y chromaticity diagram did not correspond to equal perceived color differences" (Konica Minolta 18). L* indicates lightness and a* and b* are the hue coordinates. +a* is the red direction, -a is the green, +b is the yellow, and -b is the blue direction. In the center lies achromatism (grayness). (Konica Minolta 18)<br />
[[Image:cie.jpg|thumb|left|CIE Lab sphere]]<br />
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===Colorimeters===<br />
A colorimeter is the device that measures the color coordinates of an object. Colorimeters can detect even minute differences in color and are commonly used in production so that the color of the product can be standardized. Companies determine how much tolerance--how much color variation is acceptable--in a product. The colorimeter is very fast, producing coordinates in less than a minute, and can be utilized on assembly lines. It features a built in light source so that the light remains uniform, data memory and display, and constant viewing and illumination angles. It eliminates area effect (when an object appears to be a different color due to size, paint chips vs. a painted wall for example) and contrast effect (when an object appears to be a different color when viewed with other objects). Colorimeters measure colors with three photocells calibrated to match the CIE 1931 standards, so that the observer is constant for all measurements. Essentially, with the colorimeter, almost all of the variables that make an object appear to be a different color--observer differences, light source differences, and angle differences--are eliminated. There are other types of colorimeters for the purpose of measuring objects of varying texture, including spectroradiometers, which measure emitted, transmitted, and reflected light; spectrophotometers, which measure reflected and transmitted light; glossmeters, which measure gloss; and goniospectrophotometers, which measure reflected color as function of angle. (Konica Minolta 26).<br />
[[Image:color.jpg|thumb|right|Colorimeter]]<br />
One problem with the standard colorimeter is that it cannot detect '''metamerism''', a phenomenon in which two objects appear to be the same color under certain illuminants but under different circumstances are revealed to be different colors--for example, picking out two black socks in the morning and then realizing under fluorescent light that one is actually navy. Since the colorimeter's light source mimics only daylight, a spectrophotometer is required to make sure that two objects will look the same color under different types of light, or "illuminants" (Kinoca Minolta 42).<br />
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==Common Color Spaces==<br />
A color space is a three-dimensional concept, in that it considers hue, value, and chroma. The most commonly used color spaces are hue based. These include RGB (red, green, blue), RYB (red, yellow, blue), and CMY (cyan, magenta, yellow). <br />
[[image: Color_circles.png|thumb|right|400px|]]<br />
The left circle was developed by Johannes Itten; it is a circle of the primary colors. The primary colors are still taught in art schools and classes today using this circle. The circle on the right is used today in computer graphics. The additive primary colors of this circle (red, green, and blue) produce white light when added together on a computer. The subtractive primaries (cyan, magenta, and yellow) are the complementary colors on the circle. When they’re added on the computer, they produce black, or the absence of color. When comparing the two circles, we can see that they contradict each other. The circle on the left suggests that red and green are complementary to each other, but in the circle on the right, they are both primary. This example shows that color can be subjective, “the perception of color is inexact, culturally influenced, and personal” (Evans).<br />
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==Obsolete Color Space: RG & Early Film==<br />
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Both Kinemacolor in England and Technicolor used red and green primary colors to produce images in film until blue was introduced as an easier means to produce a fuller image. Early motion pictures in England used this two -color process. Edwin Slosson describes the Kinemacolor system as “red and green being taken and projected alternately by means of a rotating disk of tinted filters. Because an image on the retina persists for about a sixteenth of a second before it fades away, each color fused with the succeeding one, except when movement was too fast (62).” <br />
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Technicolor exposes two strips of black and white film to two different filters simultaneously. One was behind a red filter and the other a green. It had much the same problems as Kinemacolor because of the issue of speed. But since this was an additive method of color mixing, a subtractive method was tried. <br />
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A successor the Gaumont Process used glass plates in an attempt to rectify the RG system. It “employed three pictures taken in the three primary colors by three lenses on the same film and projected through three objectives.” Dots, ruled lines or starch grains were used on the glass plates in the three colors. However, when enlarged, picture quality is diminished so although color is improved overall picture is not.<br />
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==Bibliography==<br />
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Billmeyer, Fred W., and Max Saltzman. Principles of Color Technology. Second Edition ed. New York: Wiley-Interscience, 1981. 25-66.<br />
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Evans, Brian. "Foundations of a Visual Music." Computer Music Journal 29 (2005): 17-18.<br />
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Gerritsen, Franz. Evolution in Color. Grand Rapids: Schiffer, Limited, 1988.<br />
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Hirsch, Robert. Exploring Colour Photography: A Complete Guide. London: Laurence King, 2004.<br />
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Hunt, R. W., and R. W. Hunt. Measuring Colour : A Photographer's Paradise. New York: Fountain P, Limited, 1996.<br />
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Kindem, Gorham. "The Demise of Kinemacolor: Technological, Legal, Economic, and Aesthetic Problems in Early Color Cinema History." Cinema Journal 20 (1981): 3-14.<br />
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Konica Minolta Sensing, Inc. "Precise Color Communication." Osaka, Japan: Konica Minolta, 1998.<br />
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Landa, Edward R. "Albert H. Munsell: A Sense of Color at the Interface of Art and Science." Soil Science 169 (2004): 83-89.<br />
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Microsoft Computer Dictionary. New York: Microsoft P, 2002."The NCS System." The <br />
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Natural Color System. Scandinavian Color Institute. <http://www.ncscolour.com/webbizz/mainpage/main.asp.><br />
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Slosson, Edwin E. "How New Color Movie Camera Works." The Science News-letter 14 (1928): 61-62.</div>Torpillehttp://www.cultureandcommunication.org/deadmedia/index.php?title=File:Color.jpg&diff=6347File:Color.jpg2008-12-03T22:16:12Z<p>Torpille: color</p>
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<div>color</div>Torpillehttp://www.cultureandcommunication.org/deadmedia/index.php?title=Old_Color_Spaces&diff=6346Old Color Spaces2008-12-03T22:15:03Z<p>Torpille: /* The CIE Color Spaces */</p>
<hr />
<div>The color space is a graphic and numerical representation of colors and their relationship to one another. The purpose of the chart is to standardize and quantify what is frequently a subjective experience. Detailed color standards are commonly used in product development and design arenas; standards become outdated rapidly as new products are developed. Color spaces and standards assist in "express[ing] a given color [of an object] accurately, describ[ing] that color to another person, and hav[ing] that person correctly reproduce the color we perceive" (Konica Minolta 1). <br />
<br />
==COLOR BASICS==<br />
<br />
'''HSB or The “Three Dimensions” of Color'''<br />
<br />
(Gerritsen/Microsoft)<br />
<br />
HSB stands for Hue-Saturation-Brightness and is a color model dependent upon a color wheel and the percentage of the amount of white present in a designated hue. <br />
<br />
===Hue===<br />
<br />
Hue is color itself as it is placed on a color wheel where each color has a percentage. Red is at 0o, yellow is 60o, green is 120o, etc. This percentage coincides with the frequency of light waves reflected of any given object for that color in respects to the color spectrum. Each tone group (red, green, etc) can than be affected by saturation and brightness in order to vary its shade and intensity. <br />
<br />
===Saturation===<br />
<br />
Often given as a percentage, saturation is the intensity of color for a specific hue. It can also be described as how different a color is from grey at any lightness. Colors that are more vivid are considered more saturated while colors that are more muddled and closer to grey are less saturated. <br />
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===Brightness===<br />
<br />
Brightness of an object is a difficult thing to measure because it is perceived. While looking at a computer screen in a dark room, colors appear brighter than if the room was well lit. But generally, brightness measures the luminosity of a color. <br />
<br />
<br />
===Additive Color Mixing===<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Image:additive.jpg|thumb|left|Additive Color Mixing]]<br />
Additive color systems, such as RGB, mix the three primary colors together as a way to produce more colors. The secondary colors of cyan, magenta and yellow are results of mixing two of the three primary colors together. White is created when all three of the primary colors are mixed together proportionately. The additive color theory was discovered by James Clerk Maxwell in conjunction with a photographer, Thomas Sutton. Maxwell had Sutton photograph a piece of ribbon three times, each with a different filter over the lens (one red, one blue, one green). He then projected each image from a different projector onto a common screen. The three separate images then formed a complete one with full coloring. <br />
<br />
<br />
===Subtractive Color Mixing===<br />
<br />
[[Image:subtractive.jpg|thumb|right|Subtractive Color Mixing]]<br />
Louis Ducos du Hauron was responsible for the discovery of the subtractive color theory. Subtractive color mixing removes some colors from white light while allowing others to pass. The CYMK model is an example of a subtractive color space. It uses cyan, yellow, magenta and black to create colors. When white light is passed through one of these secondary and subtractive color filters, two of the primary colors which form the secondary color are transmitted through the filter and the third one is absorbed. When equal amounts of all the subtractive colors overlap, all primary colors are blocked and black is produced. Subtractive color mixing is more advantageous than additive because of its ability to create more colors. When the proportion of overlapping filters is changed, almost any color can be created. Viewing equipment for subtractive coloring is also cheaper (Kirsch 28-35).<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
----<br />
<br />
==The Munsell System==<br />
===Brief Bio===<br />
Albert H. Munsell lived from 1858-1918 in Boston, MA. He attended Massachusetts Normal Art School (now Massachusetts College of Art), where he later became a member of the faculty. Although the color system he began developing is widely used by scientists and artists alike, Munsell did not consider himself a scientist. He was a trained painter frustrated with the lack of color descriptions and a systematic color scheme. Munsell began developing his color system when he was a teaching aid for color composition students. As the system became more advanced, Munsell was able to share his color distinction system with well-respected scientists and engineers around Boston. He published “A Color Notation” in 1905, which described his system so far. Munsell wanted his system to be used in a broad sense, rather than only in science and art. His goal was to use it to teach concepts of color to primary school students. Unfortunately, Munsell’s health began to decline in 1914 and he passed away in Boston in 1918 at the age of 60. After his death, Dorothy Nickerson (who first worked as secretary to Munsell’s son) worked to adapt the Munsell Color System. The charts could finally be put to widespread use 30 years after Munsell died. (Landa)<br />
===The System===<br />
The Munsell system is now the most widely used and accepted color system. All other color systems that arise are compared to the Munsell System, which has come to be known as the standard color system. The system builds on the guiding principle of equal visual perception. This is the idea that we all perceive colors differently, but the system accounts for any small discrepancies based on comparison to a grayscale, assuming the eyes seek the balance of grayscale (Evans). The system is able to describe all possible colors in terms of three coordinates:<br />
<br />
1. Munsell Hue: the quality of a color described at red, yellow, blue and so on<br />
<br />
2. Munsell Value: the place where a color falls in terms of lightness when compared to a scale of grays from white to black<br />
<br />
3. Munsell Chroma: the degree of difference between a color and a gray of the same value.<br />
<br />
The Munsell Book of Color is a compilation of color samples, usually arranged in pages of a book, or on a color “tree.” The Munsell Value is vertical in a display and the Munsell Chroma is horizontal. The scale of grays can be considered the “trunk” of the color tree, going from white on top to black on the bottom. <br />
<br />
<br />
[[image: Munsell_tree.jpg|thumb|center|200px|Munsell Tree]], [[image: Munsell_tree_pages.jpg|thumb|center|200px|Munsell Book]], [[image: Munsell_tree_round.jpg|thumb|center|200px|Munsell Tree]]<br />
<br />
Each sample has a Munsell Notation, which tells us its position on the tree. The notation consists of three symbols that represent Munsell Hue, Munsell Value, and Munsell Chroma. <br />
<br />
[[image: Munsell_notation.jpg|thumb|left|300px|An example of Munsell Notation]]<br />
<br />
The Munsell System is the most accepted color system because colors are not limited to the samples shown, whereas other color systems are. Any color that can be conceived will fit into the Munsell System. (Billmeyer and Saltzman)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Natural Color System & Color Opponency==<br />
<br />
===Color Opponency===<br />
<br />
[[Image:coloropponent.jpg|thumb|left|Color Opponency]]<br />
The Natural Color System is based upon the color opponent theory. The color opponent theory focuses on the uniqueness of four hues and their inability to be described simultaneously. R.W.G. Hunt describes color opponency:<br />
“The hues red, yellow, green and blue are said to be unique because they cannot be described in terms of any combinations of other color names. Thus, for instance, although orange can be described as a yellowish red or reddish yellow, red cannot be described as a yellowish blue or a bluish yellow. In fact the four unique hues comprise two pairs, red and green, and yellow and blue; the colors in each of these pairs are opponent, in the sense that they cannot both be perceived simultaneously as component parts of any one color. That is, it is impossible to have a reddish green, or a greenish red, or a yellowish blue, or a bluish yellow. But yellowish reds… greenish yellows… bluish reds are all possible (140-141).”<br />
Black and white are also used in the color opponent theory to determine variations of light and dark.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===NCS===<br />
<br />
[[Image:NCSNotation.jpg|thumb|right|NCS Notation]]<br />
The Natural Color System was developed by the Scandinavian Color Institute. Using NCS a color is measured based upon its percentage in comparison to a color opponent pair. A color therefore that is purely red and has no green is at 100% red. Darkness of a color and saturation are also taken into consideration when measuring the color being presented. A sample notation taken from the NCS website is shown to the right. The letter S in front simply means that the NCS is responsible for measuring a specific color.[[Image:NCSWheel.jpg|thumb|left|NCS Color Wheel]] The nuance describes the “degree of resemblance to whiteness and blackness.” Chromaticness puts the color at a grey. The ten percent blackness thus mean that there is 40 percent whiteness in the color. The Y90R describes the hue of the color. This example shows a yellowish color with 90 percent red. The ten percent yellow is than inferred (Hunt 141-143/The NCS System). <br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
----<br />
------<br />
<br />
==The CIE Color Spaces==<br />
<br />
[[Image:cielab.jpg|thumb|left|CIE Yxy]]<br />
In 1931, the Commission Internationale de l'Eclairage (CIE) devised the Yxy color space, and in 1976 created the L*a*b* to "provide more uniform color differences in relation to visual differences" (Konica Minolta 14). The CIE systems are used in conjunction with a colorimeter.<br />
===CIE Yxy===<br />
The Yxy color space is based on the three-component theory of color vision, which places red, green, and blue as the primary color receptors in the eye. All other colors are combinations of those three primary colors. Because lightness and darkness cannot be taken into consideration with RGB values, a third variable, Y lightness, makes up the Yxy system. Moving towards the center of the graph increases lightness; moving toward the edges increases chromaticity (another word for saturation). (Konica Minolta 16)<br />
===CIE L*a*b*===<br />
[[Image:Yxy.jpg|thumb|right|CIE Lab showing the variables]]The CIE L*a*b* color space was invented because the original Yxy color space had a problem: "equal distances on the x, y chromaticity diagram did not correspond to equal perceived color differences" (Konica Minolta 18). L* indicates lightness and a* and b* are the hue coordinates. +a* is the red direction, -a is the green, +b is the yellow, and -b is the blue direction. In the center lies achromatism (grayness). (Konica Minolta 18)<br />
[[Image:cie.jpg|thumb|left|CIE Lab sphere]]<br />
<br />
===Colorimeters===<br />
A colorimeter is the device that measures the color coordinates of an object. Colorimeters can detect even minute differences in color and are commonly used in production so that the color of the product can be standardized. Companies determine how much tolerance--how much color variation is acceptable--in a product. The colorimeter is very fast, producing coordinates in less than a minute, and can be utilized on assembly lines. It features a built in light source so that the light remains uniform, data memory and display, and constant viewing and illumination angles. It eliminates area effect (when an object appears to be a different color due to size, paint chips vs. a painted wall for example) and contrast effect (when an object appears to be a different color when viewed with other objects). Colorimeters measure colors with three photocells calibrated to match the CIE 1931 standards, so that the observer is constant for all measurements. Essentially, with the colorimeter, almost all of the variables that make an object appear to be a different color--observer differences, light source differences, and angle differences--are eliminated. There are other types of colorimeters for the purpose of measuring objects of varying texture, including spectroradiometers, which measure emitted, transmitted, and reflected light; spectrophotometers, which measure reflected and transmitted light; glossmeters, which measure gloss; and goniospectrophotometers, which measure reflected color as function of angle. (Konica Minolta 26).<br />
[[Image:color.jpg|thumb|left|Colorimeter]]<br />
One problem with the standard colorimeter is that it cannot detect '''metamerism''', a phenomenon in which two objects appear to be the same color under certain illuminants but under different circumstances are revealed to be different colors--for example, picking out two black socks in the morning and then realizing under fluorescent light that one is actually navy. Since the colorimeter's light source mimics only daylight, a spectrophotometer is required to make sure that two objects will look the same color under different types of light, or "illuminants" (Kinoca Minolta 42).<br />
<br />
==Common Color Spaces==<br />
A color space is a three-dimensional concept, in that it considers hue, value, and chroma. The most commonly used color spaces are hue based. These include RGB (red, green, blue), RYB (red, yellow, blue), and CMY (cyan, magenta, yellow). <br />
[[image: Color_circles.png|thumb|right|400px|]]<br />
The left circle was developed by Johannes Itten; it is a circle of the primary colors. The primary colors are still taught in art schools and classes today using this circle. The circle on the right is used today in computer graphics. The additive primary colors of this circle (red, green, and blue) produce white light when added together on a computer. The subtractive primaries (cyan, magenta, and yellow) are the complementary colors on the circle. When they’re added on the computer, they produce black, or the absence of color. When comparing the two circles, we can see that they contradict each other. The circle on the left suggests that red and green are complementary to each other, but in the circle on the right, they are both primary. This example shows that color can be subjective, “the perception of color is inexact, culturally influenced, and personal” (Evans).<br />
<br />
==Obsolete Color Space: RG & Early Film==<br />
<br />
Both Kinemacolor in England and Technicolor used red and green primary colors to produce images in film until blue was introduced as an easier means to produce a fuller image. Early motion pictures in England used this two -color process. Edwin Slosson describes the Kinemacolor system as “red and green being taken and projected alternately by means of a rotating disk of tinted filters. Because an image on the retina persists for about a sixteenth of a second before it fades away, each color fused with the succeeding one, except when movement was too fast (62).” <br />
<br />
Technicolor exposes two strips of black and white film to two different filters simultaneously. One was behind a red filter and the other a green. It had much the same problems as Kinemacolor because of the issue of speed. But since this was an additive method of color mixing, a subtractive method was tried. <br />
<br />
A successor the Gaumont Process used glass plates in an attempt to rectify the RG system. It “employed three pictures taken in the three primary colors by three lenses on the same film and projected through three objectives.” Dots, ruled lines or starch grains were used on the glass plates in the three colors. However, when enlarged, picture quality is diminished so although color is improved overall picture is not.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Bibliography==<br />
<br />
Billmeyer, Fred W., and Max Saltzman. Principles of Color Technology. Second Edition ed. New York: Wiley-Interscience, 1981. 25-66.<br />
<br />
Evans, Brian. "Foundations of a Visual Music." Computer Music Journal 29 (2005): 17-18.<br />
<br />
Gerritsen, Franz. Evolution in Color. Grand Rapids: Schiffer, Limited, 1988.<br />
<br />
Hirsch, Robert. Exploring Colour Photography: A Complete Guide. London: Laurence King, 2004.<br />
<br />
Hunt, R. W., and R. W. Hunt. Measuring Colour : A Photographer's Paradise. New York: Fountain P, Limited, 1996.<br />
<br />
Kindem, Gorham. "The Demise of Kinemacolor: Technological, Legal, Economic, and Aesthetic Problems in Early Color Cinema History." Cinema Journal 20 (1981): 3-14.<br />
<br />
Konica Minolta Sensing, Inc. "Precise Color Communication." Osaka, Japan: Konica Minolta, 1998.<br />
<br />
Landa, Edward R. "Albert H. Munsell: A Sense of Color at the Interface of Art and Science." Soil Science 169 (2004): 83-89.<br />
<br />
Microsoft Computer Dictionary. New York: Microsoft P, 2002."The NCS System." The <br />
<br />
Natural Color System. Scandinavian Color Institute. <http://www.ncscolour.com/webbizz/mainpage/main.asp.><br />
<br />
Slosson, Edwin E. "How New Color Movie Camera Works." The Science News-letter 14 (1928): 61-62.</div>Torpillehttp://www.cultureandcommunication.org/deadmedia/index.php?title=File:Cie.jpg&diff=6340File:Cie.jpg2008-12-03T21:07:32Z<p>Torpille: cielab</p>
<hr />
<div>cielab</div>Torpillehttp://www.cultureandcommunication.org/deadmedia/index.php?title=Old_Color_Spaces&diff=6339Old Color Spaces2008-12-03T21:07:01Z<p>Torpille: /* CIE L*a*b* */</p>
<hr />
<div>The color space is a graphic and numerical representation of colors and their relationship to one another. The purpose of the chart is to standardize and quantify what is frequently a subjective experience. Detailed color standards are commonly used in product development and design arenas; standards become outdated rapidly as new products are developed. Color spaces and standards assist in "express[ing] a given color [of an object] accurately, describ[ing] that color to another person, and hav[ing] that person correctly reproduce the color we perceive" (Konica Minolta 1). <br />
<br />
==COLOR BASICS==<br />
<br />
'''HSB or The “Three Dimensions” of Color'''<br />
<br />
(Gerritsen/Microsoft)<br />
<br />
HSB stands for Hue-Saturation-Brightness and is a color model dependent upon a color wheel and the percentage of the amount of white present in a designated hue. <br />
<br />
===Hue===<br />
<br />
Hue is color itself as it is placed on a color wheel where each color has a percentage. Red is at 0o, yellow is 60o, green is 120o, etc. This percentage coincides with the frequency of light waves reflected of any given object for that color in respects to the color spectrum. Each tone group (red, green, etc) can than be affected by saturation and brightness in order to vary its shade and intensity. <br />
<br />
===Saturation===<br />
<br />
Often given as a percentage, saturation is the intensity of color for a specific hue. It can also be described as how different a color is from grey at any lightness. Colors that are more vivid are considered more saturated while colors that are more muddled and closer to grey are less saturated. <br />
<br />
<br />
===Brightness===<br />
<br />
Brightness of an object is a difficult thing to measure because it is perceived. While looking at a computer screen in a dark room, colors appear brighter than if the room was well lit. But generally, brightness measures the luminosity of a color. <br />
<br />
<br />
===Additive Color Mixing===<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Image:additive.jpg|thumb|left|Additive Color Mixing]]<br />
Additive color systems, such as RGB, mix the three primary colors together as a way to produce more colors. The secondary colors of cyan, magenta and yellow are results of mixing two of the three primary colors together. White is created when all three of the primary colors are mixed together proportionately. The additive color theory was discovered by James Clerk Maxwell in conjunction with a photographer, Thomas Sutton. Maxwell had Sutton photograph a piece of ribbon three times, each with a different filter over the lens (one red, one blue, one green). He then projected each image from a different projector onto a common screen. The three separate images then formed a complete one with full coloring. <br />
<br />
<br />
===Subtractive Color Mixing===<br />
<br />
[[Image:subtractive.jpg|thumb|right|Subtractive Color Mixing]]<br />
Louis Ducos du Hauron was responsible for the discovery of the subtractive color theory. Subtractive color mixing removes some colors from white light while allowing others to pass. The CYMK model is an example of a subtractive color space. It uses cyan, yellow, magenta and black to create colors. When white light is passed through one of these secondary and subtractive color filters, two of the primary colors which form the secondary color are transmitted through the filter and the third one is absorbed. When equal amounts of all the subtractive colors overlap, all primary colors are blocked and black is produced. Subtractive color mixing is more advantageous than additive because of its ability to create more colors. When the proportion of overlapping filters is changed, almost any color can be created. Viewing equipment for subtractive coloring is also cheaper (Kirsch 28-35).<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
----<br />
<br />
==The Munsell System==<br />
===Brief Bio===<br />
Albert H. Munsell lived from 1858-1918 in Boston, MA. He attended Massachusetts Normal Art School (now Massachusetts College of Art), where he later became a member of the faculty. Although the color system he began developing is widely used by scientists and artists alike, Munsell did not consider himself a scientist. He was a trained painter frustrated with the lack of color descriptions and a systematic color scheme. Munsell began developing his color system when he was a teaching aid for color composition students. As the system became more advanced, Munsell was able to share his color distinction system with well-respected scientists and engineers around Boston. He published “A Color Notation” in 1905, which described his system so far. Munsell wanted his system to be used in a broad sense, rather than only in science and art. His goal was to use it to teach concepts of color to primary school students. Unfortunately, Munsell’s health began to decline in 1914 and he passed away in Boston in 1918 at the age of 60. After his death, Dorothy Nickerson (who first worked as secretary to Munsell’s son) worked to adapt the Munsell Color System. The charts could finally be put to widespread use 30 years after Munsell died. (Landa)<br />
===The System===<br />
The Munsell system is now the most widely used and accepted color system. All other color systems that arise are compared to the Munsell System, which has come to be known as the standard color system. The system builds on the guiding principle of equal visual perception. This is the idea that we all perceive colors differently, but the system accounts for any small discrepancies based on comparison to a grayscale, assuming the eyes seek the balance of grayscale (Evans). The system is able to describe all possible colors in terms of three coordinates:<br />
<br />
1. Munsell Hue: the quality of a color described at red, yellow, blue and so on<br />
<br />
2. Munsell Value: the place where a color falls in terms of lightness when compared to a scale of grays from white to black<br />
<br />
3. Munsell Chroma: the degree of difference between a color and a gray of the same value.<br />
<br />
The Munsell Book of Color is a compilation of color samples, usually arranged in pages of a book, or on a color “tree.” The Munsell Value is vertical in a display and the Munsell Chroma is horizontal. The scale of grays can be considered the “trunk” of the color tree, going from white on top to black on the bottom. <br />
<br />
<br />
[[image: Munsell_tree.jpg|thumb|center|200px|Munsell Tree]], [[image: Munsell_tree_pages.jpg|thumb|center|200px|Munsell Book]], [[image: Munsell_tree_round.jpg|thumb|center|200px|Munsell Tree]]<br />
<br />
Each sample has a Munsell Notation, which tells us its position on the tree. The notation consists of three symbols that represent Munsell Hue, Munsell Value, and Munsell Chroma. <br />
<br />
[[image: Munsell_notation.jpg|thumb|left|300px|An example of Munsell Notation]]<br />
<br />
The Munsell System is the most accepted color system because colors are not limited to the samples shown, whereas other color systems are. Any color that can be conceived will fit into the Munsell System. (Billmeyer and Saltzman)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Natural Color System & Color Opponency==<br />
<br />
===Color Opponency===<br />
<br />
[[Image:coloropponent.jpg|thumb|left|Color Opponency]]<br />
The Natural Color System is based upon the color opponent theory. The color opponent theory focuses on the uniqueness of four hues and their inability to be described simultaneously. R.W.G. Hunt describes color opponency:<br />
“The hues red, yellow, green and blue are said to be unique because they cannot be described in terms of any combinations of other color names. Thus, for instance, although orange can be described as a yellowish red or reddish yellow, red cannot be described as a yellowish blue or a bluish yellow. In fact the four unique hues comprise two pairs, red and green, and yellow and blue; the colors in each of these pairs are opponent, in the sense that they cannot both be perceived simultaneously as component parts of any one color. That is, it is impossible to have a reddish green, or a greenish red, or a yellowish blue, or a bluish yellow. But yellowish reds… greenish yellows… bluish reds are all possible (140-141).”<br />
Black and white are also used in the color opponent theory to determine variations of light and dark.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===NCS===<br />
<br />
[[Image:NCSNotation.jpg|thumb|right|NCS Notation]]<br />
The Natural Color System was developed by the Scandinavian Color Institute. Using NCS a color is measured based upon its percentage in comparison to a color opponent pair. A color therefore that is purely red and has no green is at 100% red. Darkness of a color and saturation are also taken into consideration when measuring the color being presented. A sample notation taken from the NCS website is shown to the right. The letter S in front simply means that the NCS is responsible for measuring a specific color.[[Image:NCSWheel.jpg|thumb|left|NCS Color Wheel]] The nuance describes the “degree of resemblance to whiteness and blackness.” Chromaticness puts the color at a grey. The ten percent blackness thus mean that there is 40 percent whiteness in the color. The Y90R describes the hue of the color. This example shows a yellowish color with 90 percent red. The ten percent yellow is than inferred (Hunt 141-143/The NCS System). <br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
----<br />
------<br />
<br />
==The CIE Color Spaces==<br />
<br />
[[Image:cielab.jpg|thumb|left|CIE Yxy]]<br />
In 1931, the Commission Internationale de l'Eclairage (CIE) devised the Yxy color space, and in 1976 created the L*a*b* to "provide more uniform color differences in relation to visual differences" (Konica Minolta 14). The CIE systems are used in conjunction with a colorimeter.<br />
===CIE Yxy===<br />
The Yxy color space is based on the three-component theory of color vision, which places red, green, and blue as the primary color receptors in the eye. All other colors are combinations of those three primary colors. Because lightness and darkness cannot be taken into consideration with RGB values, a third variable, Y lightness, makes up the Yxy system. Moving towards the center of the graph increases lightness; moving toward the edges increases chromaticity (another word for saturation). (Konica Minolta 16)<br />
===CIE L*a*b*===<br />
[[Image:Yxy.jpg|thumb|right|CIE Lab showing the variables]]The CIE L*a*b* color space was invented because the original Yxy color space had a problem: "equal distances on the x, y chromaticity diagram did not correspond to equal perceived color differences" (Konica Minolta 18). L* indicates lightness and a* and b* are the hue coordinates. +a* is the red direction, -a is the green, +b is the yellow, and -b is the blue direction. In the center lies achromatism (grayness). (Konica Minolta 18)<br />
[[Image:cie.jpg|thumb|left|CIE Lab sphere]]<br />
<br />
===Colorimeters===<br />
A colorimeter is the device that measures the color coordinates of an object. Colorimeters can detect even minute differences in color and are commonly used in production so that the color of the product can be standardized. Companies determine how much tolerance--how much color variation is acceptable--in a product. The colorimeter is very fast, producing coordinates in less than a minute, and can be utilized on assembly lines. It features a built in light source so that the light remains uniform, data memory and display, and constant viewing and illumination angles. It eliminates area effect (when an object appears to be a different color due to size, paint chips vs. a painted wall for example) and contrast effect (when an object appears to be a different color when viewed with other objects). Colorimeters measure colors with three photocells calibrated to match the CIE 1931 standards, so that the observer is constant for all measurements. Essentially, with the colorimeter, almost all of the variables that make an object appear to be a different color--observer differences, light source differences, and angle differences--are eliminated. There are other types of colorimeters for the purpose of measuring objects of varying texture, including spectroradiometers, which measure emitted, transmitted, and reflected light; spectrophotometers, which measure reflected and transmitted light; glossmeters, which measure gloss; and goniospectrophotometers, which measure reflected color as function of angle. (Konica Minolta 26).<br />
<br />
One problem with the standard colorimeter is that it cannot detect '''metamerism''', a phenomenon in which two objects appear to be the same color under certain illuminants but under different circumstances are revealed to be different colors--for example, picking out two black socks in the morning and then realizing under fluorescent light that one is actually navy. Since the colorimeter's light source mimics only daylight, a spectrophotometer is required to make sure that two objects will look the same color under different types of light, or "illuminants" (Kinoca Minolta 42).<br />
<br />
==Common Color Spaces==<br />
A color space is a three-dimensional concept, in that it considers hue, value, and chroma. The most commonly used color spaces are hue based. These include RGB (red, green, blue), RYB (red, yellow, blue), and CMY (cyan, magenta, yellow). <br />
[[image: Color_circles.png|thumb|right|400px|]]<br />
The left circle was developed by Johannes Itten; it is a circle of the primary colors. The primary colors are still taught in art schools and classes today using this circle. The circle on the right is used today in computer graphics. The additive primary colors of this circle (red, green, and blue) produce white light when added together on a computer. The subtractive primaries (cyan, magenta, and yellow) are the complementary colors on the circle. When they’re added on the computer, they produce black, or the absence of color. When comparing the two circles, we can see that they contradict each other. The circle on the left suggests that red and green are complementary to each other, but in the circle on the right, they are both primary. This example shows that color can be subjective, “the perception of color is inexact, culturally influenced, and personal” (Evans).<br />
<br />
==Obsolete Color Space: RG & Early Film==<br />
<br />
Both Kinemacolor in England and Technicolor used red and green primary colors to produce images in film until blue was introduced as an easier means to produce a fuller image. Early motion pictures in England used this two -color process. Edwin Slosson describes the Kinemacolor system as “red and green being taken and projected alternately by means of a rotating disk of tinted filters. Because an image on the retina persists for about a sixteenth of a second before it fades away, each color fused with the succeeding one, except when movement was too fast (62).” <br />
<br />
Technicolor exposes two strips of black and white film to two different filters simultaneously. One was behind a red filter and the other a green. It had much the same problems as Kinemacolor because of the issue of speed. But since this was an additive method of color mixing, a subtractive method was tried. <br />
<br />
A successor the Gaumont Process used glass plates in an attempt to rectify the RG system. It “employed three pictures taken in the three primary colors by three lenses on the same film and projected through three objectives.” Dots, ruled lines or starch grains were used on the glass plates in the three colors. However, when enlarged, picture quality is diminished so although color is improved overall picture is not.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Bibliography==<br />
<br />
Billmeyer, Fred W., and Max Saltzman. Principles of Color Technology. Second Edition ed. New York: Wiley-Interscience, 1981. 25-66.<br />
<br />
Evans, Brian. "Foundations of a Visual Music." Computer Music Journal 29 (2005): 17-18.<br />
<br />
Gerritsen, Franz. Evolution in Color. Grand Rapids: Schiffer, Limited, 1988.<br />
<br />
Hirsch, Robert. Exploring Colour Photography: A Complete Guide. London: Laurence King, 2004.<br />
<br />
Hunt, R. W., and R. W. Hunt. Measuring Colour : A Photographer's Paradise. New York: Fountain P, Limited, 1996.<br />
<br />
Kindem, Gorham. "The Demise of Kinemacolor: Technological, Legal, Economic, and Aesthetic Problems in Early Color Cinema History." Cinema Journal 20 (1981): 3-14.<br />
<br />
Konica Minolta Sensing, Inc. "Precise Color Communication." Osaka, Japan: Konica Minolta, 1998.<br />
<br />
Landa, Edward R. "Albert H. Munsell: A Sense of Color at the Interface of Art and Science." Soil Science 169 (2004): 83-89.<br />
<br />
Microsoft Computer Dictionary. New York: Microsoft P, 2002."The NCS System." The <br />
<br />
Natural Color System. Scandinavian Color Institute. <http://www.ncscolour.com/webbizz/mainpage/main.asp.><br />
<br />
Slosson, Edwin E. "How New Color Movie Camera Works." The Science News-letter 14 (1928): 61-62.</div>Torpillehttp://www.cultureandcommunication.org/deadmedia/index.php?title=Old_Color_Spaces&diff=6338Old Color Spaces2008-12-03T21:02:03Z<p>Torpille: /* Colorimeters */</p>
<hr />
<div>The color space is a graphic and numerical representation of colors and their relationship to one another. The purpose of the chart is to standardize and quantify what is frequently a subjective experience. Detailed color standards are commonly used in product development and design arenas; standards become outdated rapidly as new products are developed. Color spaces and standards assist in "express[ing] a given color [of an object] accurately, describ[ing] that color to another person, and hav[ing] that person correctly reproduce the color we perceive" (Konica Minolta 1). <br />
<br />
==COLOR BASICS==<br />
<br />
'''HSB or The “Three Dimensions” of Color'''<br />
<br />
(Gerritsen/Microsoft)<br />
<br />
HSB stands for Hue-Saturation-Brightness and is a color model dependent upon a color wheel and the percentage of the amount of white present in a designated hue. <br />
<br />
===Hue===<br />
<br />
Hue is color itself as it is placed on a color wheel where each color has a percentage. Red is at 0o, yellow is 60o, green is 120o, etc. This percentage coincides with the frequency of light waves reflected of any given object for that color in respects to the color spectrum. Each tone group (red, green, etc) can than be affected by saturation and brightness in order to vary its shade and intensity. <br />
<br />
===Saturation===<br />
<br />
Often given as a percentage, saturation is the intensity of color for a specific hue. It can also be described as how different a color is from grey at any lightness. Colors that are more vivid are considered more saturated while colors that are more muddled and closer to grey are less saturated. <br />
<br />
<br />
===Brightness===<br />
<br />
Brightness of an object is a difficult thing to measure because it is perceived. While looking at a computer screen in a dark room, colors appear brighter than if the room was well lit. But generally, brightness measures the luminosity of a color. <br />
<br />
<br />
===Additive Color Mixing===<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Image:additive.jpg|thumb|left|Additive Color Mixing]]<br />
Additive color systems, such as RGB, mix the three primary colors together as a way to produce more colors. The secondary colors of cyan, magenta and yellow are results of mixing two of the three primary colors together. White is created when all three of the primary colors are mixed together proportionately. The additive color theory was discovered by James Clerk Maxwell in conjunction with a photographer, Thomas Sutton. Maxwell had Sutton photograph a piece of ribbon three times, each with a different filter over the lens (one red, one blue, one green). He then projected each image from a different projector onto a common screen. The three separate images then formed a complete one with full coloring. <br />
<br />
<br />
===Subtractive Color Mixing===<br />
<br />
[[Image:subtractive.jpg|thumb|right|Subtractive Color Mixing]]<br />
Louis Ducos du Hauron was responsible for the discovery of the subtractive color theory. Subtractive color mixing removes some colors from white light while allowing others to pass. The CYMK model is an example of a subtractive color space. It uses cyan, yellow, magenta and black to create colors. When white light is passed through one of these secondary and subtractive color filters, two of the primary colors which form the secondary color are transmitted through the filter and the third one is absorbed. When equal amounts of all the subtractive colors overlap, all primary colors are blocked and black is produced. Subtractive color mixing is more advantageous than additive because of its ability to create more colors. When the proportion of overlapping filters is changed, almost any color can be created. Viewing equipment for subtractive coloring is also cheaper (Kirsch 28-35).<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
----<br />
<br />
==The Munsell System==<br />
===Brief Bio===<br />
Albert H. Munsell lived from 1858-1918 in Boston, MA. He attended Massachusetts Normal Art School (now Massachusetts College of Art), where he later became a member of the faculty. Although the color system he began developing is widely used by scientists and artists alike, Munsell did not consider himself a scientist. He was a trained painter frustrated with the lack of color descriptions and a systematic color scheme. Munsell began developing his color system when he was a teaching aid for color composition students. As the system became more advanced, Munsell was able to share his color distinction system with well-respected scientists and engineers around Boston. He published “A Color Notation” in 1905, which described his system so far. Munsell wanted his system to be used in a broad sense, rather than only in science and art. His goal was to use it to teach concepts of color to primary school students. Unfortunately, Munsell’s health began to decline in 1914 and he passed away in Boston in 1918 at the age of 60. After his death, Dorothy Nickerson (who first worked as secretary to Munsell’s son) worked to adapt the Munsell Color System. The charts could finally be put to widespread use 30 years after Munsell died. (Landa)<br />
===The System===<br />
The Munsell system is now the most widely used and accepted color system. All other color systems that arise are compared to the Munsell System, which has come to be known as the standard color system. The system builds on the guiding principle of equal visual perception. This is the idea that we all perceive colors differently, but the system accounts for any small discrepancies based on comparison to a grayscale, assuming the eyes seek the balance of grayscale (Evans). The system is able to describe all possible colors in terms of three coordinates:<br />
<br />
1. Munsell Hue: the quality of a color described at red, yellow, blue and so on<br />
<br />
2. Munsell Value: the place where a color falls in terms of lightness when compared to a scale of grays from white to black<br />
<br />
3. Munsell Chroma: the degree of difference between a color and a gray of the same value.<br />
<br />
The Munsell Book of Color is a compilation of color samples, usually arranged in pages of a book, or on a color “tree.” The Munsell Value is vertical in a display and the Munsell Chroma is horizontal. The scale of grays can be considered the “trunk” of the color tree, going from white on top to black on the bottom. <br />
<br />
<br />
[[image: Munsell_tree.jpg|thumb|center|200px|Munsell Tree]], [[image: Munsell_tree_pages.jpg|thumb|center|200px|Munsell Book]], [[image: Munsell_tree_round.jpg|thumb|center|200px|Munsell Tree]]<br />
<br />
Each sample has a Munsell Notation, which tells us its position on the tree. The notation consists of three symbols that represent Munsell Hue, Munsell Value, and Munsell Chroma. <br />
<br />
[[image: Munsell_notation.jpg|thumb|left|300px|An example of Munsell Notation]]<br />
<br />
The Munsell System is the most accepted color system because colors are not limited to the samples shown, whereas other color systems are. Any color that can be conceived will fit into the Munsell System. (Billmeyer and Saltzman)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Natural Color System & Color Opponency==<br />
<br />
===Color Opponency===<br />
<br />
[[Image:coloropponent.jpg|thumb|left|Color Opponency]]<br />
The Natural Color System is based upon the color opponent theory. The color opponent theory focuses on the uniqueness of four hues and their inability to be described simultaneously. R.W.G. Hunt describes color opponency:<br />
“The hues red, yellow, green and blue are said to be unique because they cannot be described in terms of any combinations of other color names. Thus, for instance, although orange can be described as a yellowish red or reddish yellow, red cannot be described as a yellowish blue or a bluish yellow. In fact the four unique hues comprise two pairs, red and green, and yellow and blue; the colors in each of these pairs are opponent, in the sense that they cannot both be perceived simultaneously as component parts of any one color. That is, it is impossible to have a reddish green, or a greenish red, or a yellowish blue, or a bluish yellow. But yellowish reds… greenish yellows… bluish reds are all possible (140-141).”<br />
Black and white are also used in the color opponent theory to determine variations of light and dark.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===NCS===<br />
<br />
[[Image:NCSNotation.jpg|thumb|right|NCS Notation]]<br />
The Natural Color System was developed by the Scandinavian Color Institute. Using NCS a color is measured based upon its percentage in comparison to a color opponent pair. A color therefore that is purely red and has no green is at 100% red. Darkness of a color and saturation are also taken into consideration when measuring the color being presented. A sample notation taken from the NCS website is shown to the right. The letter S in front simply means that the NCS is responsible for measuring a specific color.[[Image:NCSWheel.jpg|thumb|left|NCS Color Wheel]] The nuance describes the “degree of resemblance to whiteness and blackness.” Chromaticness puts the color at a grey. The ten percent blackness thus mean that there is 40 percent whiteness in the color. The Y90R describes the hue of the color. This example shows a yellowish color with 90 percent red. The ten percent yellow is than inferred (Hunt 141-143/The NCS System). <br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
----<br />
------<br />
<br />
==The CIE Color Spaces==<br />
<br />
[[Image:cielab.jpg|thumb|left|CIE Yxy]]<br />
In 1931, the Commission Internationale de l'Eclairage (CIE) devised the Yxy color space, and in 1976 created the L*a*b* to "provide more uniform color differences in relation to visual differences" (Konica Minolta 14). The CIE systems are used in conjunction with a colorimeter.<br />
===CIE Yxy===<br />
The Yxy color space is based on the three-component theory of color vision, which places red, green, and blue as the primary color receptors in the eye. All other colors are combinations of those three primary colors. Because lightness and darkness cannot be taken into consideration with RGB values, a third variable, Y lightness, makes up the Yxy system. Moving towards the center of the graph increases lightness; moving toward the edges increases chromaticity (another word for saturation). (Konica Minolta 16)<br />
===CIE L*a*b*===<br />
[[Image:Yxy.jpg|thumb|right|CIE Lab showing the variables]]The CIE L*a*b* color space was invented because the original Yxy color space had a problem: "equal distances on the x, y chromaticity diagram did not correspond to equal perceived color differences" (Konica Minolta 18). L* indicates lightness and a* and b* are the hue coordinates. +a* is the red direction, -a is the green, +b is the yellow, and -b is the blue direction. In the center lies achromatism (grayness). (Konica Minolta 18)<br />
===Colorimeters===<br />
A colorimeter is the device that measures the color coordinates of an object. Colorimeters can detect even minute differences in color and are commonly used in production so that the color of the product can be standardized. Companies determine how much tolerance--how much color variation is acceptable--in a product. The colorimeter is very fast, producing coordinates in less than a minute, and can be utilized on assembly lines. It features a built in light source so that the light remains uniform, data memory and display, and constant viewing and illumination angles. It eliminates area effect (when an object appears to be a different color due to size, paint chips vs. a painted wall for example) and contrast effect (when an object appears to be a different color when viewed with other objects). Colorimeters measure colors with three photocells calibrated to match the CIE 1931 standards, so that the observer is constant for all measurements. Essentially, with the colorimeter, almost all of the variables that make an object appear to be a different color--observer differences, light source differences, and angle differences--are eliminated. There are other types of colorimeters for the purpose of measuring objects of varying texture, including spectroradiometers, which measure emitted, transmitted, and reflected light; spectrophotometers, which measure reflected and transmitted light; glossmeters, which measure gloss; and goniospectrophotometers, which measure reflected color as function of angle. (Konica Minolta 26).<br />
<br />
One problem with the standard colorimeter is that it cannot detect '''metamerism''', a phenomenon in which two objects appear to be the same color under certain illuminants but under different circumstances are revealed to be different colors--for example, picking out two black socks in the morning and then realizing under fluorescent light that one is actually navy. Since the colorimeter's light source mimics only daylight, a spectrophotometer is required to make sure that two objects will look the same color under different types of light, or "illuminants" (Kinoca Minolta 42).<br />
<br />
==Common Color Spaces==<br />
A color space is a three-dimensional concept, in that it considers hue, value, and chroma. The most commonly used color spaces are hue based. These include RGB (red, green, blue), RYB (red, yellow, blue), and CMY (cyan, magenta, yellow). <br />
[[image: Color_circles.png|thumb|right|400px|]]<br />
The left circle was developed by Johannes Itten; it is a circle of the primary colors. The primary colors are still taught in art schools and classes today using this circle. The circle on the right is used today in computer graphics. The additive primary colors of this circle (red, green, and blue) produce white light when added together on a computer. The subtractive primaries (cyan, magenta, and yellow) are the complementary colors on the circle. When they’re added on the computer, they produce black, or the absence of color. When comparing the two circles, we can see that they contradict each other. The circle on the left suggests that red and green are complementary to each other, but in the circle on the right, they are both primary. This example shows that color can be subjective, “the perception of color is inexact, culturally influenced, and personal” (Evans).<br />
<br />
==Obsolete Color Space: RG & Early Film==<br />
<br />
Both Kinemacolor in England and Technicolor used red and green primary colors to produce images in film until blue was introduced as an easier means to produce a fuller image. Early motion pictures in England used this two -color process. Edwin Slosson describes the Kinemacolor system as “red and green being taken and projected alternately by means of a rotating disk of tinted filters. Because an image on the retina persists for about a sixteenth of a second before it fades away, each color fused with the succeeding one, except when movement was too fast (62).” <br />
<br />
Technicolor exposes two strips of black and white film to two different filters simultaneously. One was behind a red filter and the other a green. It had much the same problems as Kinemacolor because of the issue of speed. But since this was an additive method of color mixing, a subtractive method was tried. <br />
<br />
A successor the Gaumont Process used glass plates in an attempt to rectify the RG system. It “employed three pictures taken in the three primary colors by three lenses on the same film and projected through three objectives.” Dots, ruled lines or starch grains were used on the glass plates in the three colors. However, when enlarged, picture quality is diminished so although color is improved overall picture is not.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Bibliography==<br />
<br />
Billmeyer, Fred W., and Max Saltzman. Principles of Color Technology. Second Edition ed. New York: Wiley-Interscience, 1981. 25-66.<br />
<br />
Evans, Brian. "Foundations of a Visual Music." Computer Music Journal 29 (2005): 17-18.<br />
<br />
Gerritsen, Franz. Evolution in Color. Grand Rapids: Schiffer, Limited, 1988.<br />
<br />
Hirsch, Robert. Exploring Colour Photography: A Complete Guide. London: Laurence King, 2004.<br />
<br />
Hunt, R. W., and R. W. Hunt. Measuring Colour : A Photographer's Paradise. New York: Fountain P, Limited, 1996.<br />
<br />
Kindem, Gorham. "The Demise of Kinemacolor: Technological, Legal, Economic, and Aesthetic Problems in Early Color Cinema History." Cinema Journal 20 (1981): 3-14.<br />
<br />
Konica Minolta Sensing, Inc. "Precise Color Communication." Osaka, Japan: Konica Minolta, 1998.<br />
<br />
Landa, Edward R. "Albert H. Munsell: A Sense of Color at the Interface of Art and Science." Soil Science 169 (2004): 83-89.<br />
<br />
Microsoft Computer Dictionary. New York: Microsoft P, 2002."The NCS System." The <br />
<br />
Natural Color System. Scandinavian Color Institute. <http://www.ncscolour.com/webbizz/mainpage/main.asp.><br />
<br />
Slosson, Edwin E. "How New Color Movie Camera Works." The Science News-letter 14 (1928): 61-62.</div>Torpillehttp://www.cultureandcommunication.org/deadmedia/index.php?title=Old_Color_Spaces&diff=6267Old Color Spaces2008-12-03T19:02:39Z<p>Torpille: /* Bibliography */</p>
<hr />
<div>The color space is a graphic and numerical representation of colors and their relationship to one another. The purpose of the chart is to standardize and quantify what is frequently a subjective experience. Detailed color standards are commonly used in product development and design arenas; standards become outdated rapidly as new products are developed. Color spaces and standards assist in "express[ing] a given color [of an object] accurately, describ[ing] that color to another person, and hav[ing] that person correctly reproduce the color we perceive" (Konica Minolta 1). <br />
<br />
==COLOR BASICS==<br />
<br />
'''HSB or The “Three Dimensions” of Color'''<br />
<br />
(Gerritsen/Microsoft)<br />
<br />
HSB stands for Hue-Saturation-Brightness and is a color model dependent upon a color wheel and the percentage of the amount of white present in a designated hue. <br />
<br />
===Hue===<br />
<br />
Hue is color itself as it is placed on a color wheel where each color has a percentage. Red is at 0o, yellow is 60o, green is 120o, etc. This percentage coincides with the frequency of light waves reflected of any given object for that color in respects to the color spectrum. Each tone group (red, green, etc) can than be affected by saturation and brightness in order to vary its shade and intensity. <br />
<br />
===Saturation===<br />
<br />
Often given as a percentage, saturation is the intensity of color for a specific hue. It can also be described as how different a color is from grey at any lightness. Colors that are more vivid are considered more saturated while colors that are more muddled and closer to grey are less saturated. <br />
<br />
<br />
===Brightness===<br />
<br />
Brightness of an object is a difficult thing to measure because it is perceived. While looking at a computer screen in a dark room, colors appear brighter than if the room was well lit. But generally, brightness measures the luminosity of a color. <br />
<br />
<br />
===Additive Color Mixing===<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Image:additive.jpg|thumb|left|Additive Color Mixing]]<br />
Additive color systems, such as RGB, mix the three primary colors together as a way to produce more colors. The secondary colors of cyan, magenta and yellow are results of mixing two of the three primary colors together. White is created when all three of the primary colors are mixed together proportionately. The additive color theory was discovered by James Clerk Maxwell in conjunction with a photographer, Thomas Sutton. Maxwell had Sutton photograph a piece of ribbon three times, each with a different filter over the lens (one red, one blue, one green). He then projected each image from a different projector onto a common screen. The three separate images then formed a complete one with full coloring. <br />
<br />
<br />
===Subtractive Color Mixing===<br />
<br />
[[Image:subtractive.jpg|thumb|right|Subtractive Color Mixing]]<br />
Louis Ducos du Hauron was responsible for the discovery of the subtractive color theory. Subtractive color mixing removes some colors from white light while allowing others to pass. The CYMK model is an example of a subtractive color space. It uses cyan, yellow, magenta and black to create colors. When white light is passed through one of these secondary and subtractive color filters, two of the primary colors which form the secondary color are transmitted through the filter and the third one is absorbed. When equal amounts of all the subtractive colors overlap, all primary colors are blocked and black is produced. Subtractive color mixing is more advantageous than additive because of its ability to create more colors. When the proportion of overlapping filters is changed, almost any color can be created. Viewing equipment for subtractive coloring is also cheaper (Kirsch 28-35).<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
----<br />
<br />
==The Munsell System==<br />
===Brief Bio===<br />
Albert H. Munsell lived from 1858-1918 in Boston, MA. He attended Massachusetts Normal Art School (now Massachusetts College of Art), where he later became a member of the faculty. Although the color system he began developing is widely used by scientists and artists alike, Munsell did not consider himself a scientist. He was a trained painter frustrated with the lack of color descriptions and a systematic color scheme. Munsell began developing his color system when he was a teaching aid for color composition students. As the system became more advanced, Munsell was able to share his color distinction system with well-respected scientists and engineers around Boston. He published “A Color Notation” in 1905, which described his system so far. Munsell wanted his system to be used in a broad sense, rather than only in science and art. His goal was to use it to teach concepts of color to primary school students. Unfortunately, Munsell’s health began to decline in 1914 and he passed away in Boston in 1918 at the age of 60. After his death, Dorothy Nickerson (who first worked as secretary to Munsell’s son) worked to adapt the Munsell Color System. The charts could finally be put to widespread use 30 years after Munsell died. (Landa)<br />
===The System===<br />
The Munsell system is now the most widely used and accepted color system. All other color systems that arise are compared to the Munsell System, which has come to be known as the standard color system. The system builds on the guiding principle of equal visual perception. This is the idea that we all perceive colors differently, but the system accounts for any small discrepancies based on comparison to a grayscale, assuming the eyes seek the balance of grayscale (Evans). The system is able to describe all possible colors in terms of three coordinates:<br />
<br />
1. Munsell Hue: the quality of a color described at red, yellow, blue and so on<br />
<br />
2. Munsell Value: the place where a color falls in terms of lightness when compared to a scale of grays from white to black<br />
<br />
3. Munsell Chroma: the degree of difference between a color and a gray of the same value.<br />
<br />
The Munsell Book of Color is a compilation of color samples, usually arranged in pages of a book, or on a color “tree.” The Munsell Value is vertical in a display and the Munsell Chroma is horizontal. The scale of grays can be considered the “trunk” of the color tree, going from white on top to black on the bottom. <br />
<br />
<br />
[[image: Munsell_tree.jpg|thumb|center|200px|Munsell Tree]], [[image: Munsell_tree_pages.jpg|thumb|center|200px|Munsell Book]], [[image: Munsell_tree_round.jpg|thumb|center|200px|Munsell Tree]]<br />
<br />
Each sample has a Munsell Notation, which tells us its position on the tree. The notation consists of three symbols that represent Munsell Hue, Munsell Value, and Munsell Chroma. <br />
<br />
[[image: Munsell_notation.jpg|thumb|left|300px|An example of Munsell Notation]]<br />
<br />
The Munsell System is the most accepted color system because colors are not limited to the samples shown, whereas other color systems are. Any color that can be conceived will fit into the Munsell System. (Billmeyer and Saltzman)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Natural Color System & Color Opponency==<br />
<br />
===Color Opponency===<br />
<br />
[[Image:coloropponent.jpg|thumb|left|Color Opponency]]<br />
The Natural Color System is based upon the color opponent theory. The color opponent theory focuses on the uniqueness of four hues and their inability to be described simultaneously. R.W.G. Hunt describes color opponency:<br />
“The hues red, yellow, green and blue are said to be unique because they cannot be described in terms of any combinations of other color names. Thus, for instance, although orange can be described as a yellowish red or reddish yellow, red cannot be described as a yellowish blue or a bluish yellow. In fact the four unique hues comprise two pairs, red and green, and yellow and blue; the colors in each of these pairs are opponent, in the sense that they cannot both be perceived simultaneously as component parts of any one color. That is, it is impossible to have a reddish green, or a greenish red, or a yellowish blue, or a bluish yellow. But yellowish reds… greenish yellows… bluish reds are all possible (140-141).”<br />
Black and white are also used in the color opponent theory to determine variations of light and dark.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===NCS===<br />
<br />
[[Image:NCSNotation.jpg|thumb|right|NCS Notation]]<br />
The Natural Color System was developed by the Scandinavian Color Institute. Using NCS a color is measured based upon its percentage in comparison to a color opponent pair. A color therefore that is purely red and has no green is at 100% red. Darkness of a color and saturation are also taken into consideration when measuring the color being presented. A sample notation taken from the NCS website is shown to the right. The letter S in front simply means that the NCS is responsible for measuring a specific color.[[Image:NCSWheel.jpg|thumb|left|NCS Color Wheel]] The nuance describes the “degree of resemblance to whiteness and blackness.” Chromaticness puts the color at a grey. The ten percent blackness thus mean that there is 40 percent whiteness in the color. The Y90R describes the hue of the color. This example shows a yellowish color with 90 percent red. The ten percent yellow is than inferred (Hunt 141-143/The NCS System). <br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
----<br />
------<br />
<br />
==The CIE Color Spaces==<br />
<br />
[[Image:cielab.jpg|thumb|left|CIE Yxy]]<br />
In 1931, the Commission Internationale de l'Eclairage (CIE) devised the Yxy color space, and in 1976 created the L*a*b* to "provide more uniform color differences in relation to visual differences" (Konica Minolta 14). The CIE systems are used in conjunction with a colorimeter.<br />
===CIE Yxy===<br />
The Yxy color space is based on the three-component theory of color vision, which places red, green, and blue as the primary color receptors in the eye. All other colors are combinations of those three primary colors. Because lightness and darkness cannot be taken into consideration with RGB values, a third variable, Y lightness, makes up the Yxy system. Moving towards the center of the graph increases lightness; moving toward the edges increases chromaticity (another word for saturation). (Konica Minolta 16)<br />
===CIE L*a*b*===<br />
[[Image:Yxy.jpg|thumb|right|CIE Lab showing the variables]]The CIE L*a*b* color space was invented because the original Yxy color space had a problem: "equal distances on the x, y chromaticity diagram did not correspond to equal perceived color differences" (Konica Minolta 18). L* indicates lightness and a* and b* are the hue coordinates. +a* is the red direction, -a is the green, +b is the yellow, and -b is the blue direction. In the center lies achromatism (grayness). (Konica Minolta 18)<br />
===Colorimeters===<br />
A colorimeter is the device that measures the color coordinates of an object. Colorimeters can detect even minute differences in color and are commonly used in production so that the color of the product can be standardized. Companies determine how much tolerance--how much color variation is acceptable--in a product. The colorimeter is very fast, producing coordinates in less than a minute, and can be utilized on assembly lines. It features a built in light source so that the light remains uniform, data memory and display, and constant viewing and illumination angles. It eliminates area effect (when an object appears to be a different color due to size, paint chips vs. a painted wall for example) and contrast effect (when an object appears to be a different color when viewed with other objects). Colorimeters measure colors with three photocells calibrated to match the CIE 1931 standards, so that the observer is constant for all measurements. Essentially, with the colorimeter, almost all of the variables that make an object appear to be a different color--observer differences, light source differences, and angle differences--are eliminated. There are other types of colorimeters for the purpose of measuring objects of varying texture, including spectroradiometers, which measure emitted, transmitted, and reflected light; spectrophotometers, which measure reflected and transmitted light; glossmeters, which measure gloss; and goniospectrophotometers, which measure reflected color as function of angle. (Konica Minolta 26).<br />
<br />
One problem with the standard colorimeter is that it cannot detect '''metamerism''', a phenomenon in which two objects appear to be the same color under certain illuminants but under different circumstances are revealed to be different colors--for example, picking out two black socks in the morning and then realizing under fluorescent light that one is actually navy. Since the colorimeter's light source mimics only daylight, a spectrophotometer is required to make sure that two objects will look the same color under different types of light, or "illuminants" (Kinoca Minolta 42).<br />
<br />
[[Image:cielch.jpg|thumb|left|NCS Color Wheel]]<br />
<br />
==Common Color Spaces==<br />
A color space is a three-dimensional concept, in that it considers hue, value, and chroma. The most commonly used color spaces are hue based. These include RGB (red, green, blue), RYB (red, yellow, blue), and CMY (cyan, magenta, yellow). <br />
[[image: Color_circles.png|thumb|right|400px|]]<br />
The left circle was developed by Johannes Itten; it is a circle of the primary colors. The primary colors are still taught in art schools and classes today using this circle. The circle on the right is used today in computer graphics. The additive primary colors of this circle (red, green, and blue) produce white light when added together on a computer. The subtractive primaries (cyan, magenta, and yellow) are the complementary colors on the circle. When they’re added on the computer, they produce black, or the absence of color. When comparing the two circles, we can see that they contradict each other. The circle on the left suggests that red and green are complementary to each other, but in the circle on the right, they are both primary. This example shows that color can be subjective, “the perception of color is inexact, culturally influenced, and personal” (Evans).<br />
<br />
==Obsolete Color Space: RG & Early Film==<br />
<br />
Both Kinemacolor in England and Technicolor used red and green primary colors to produce images in film until blue was introduced as an easier means to produce a fuller image. Early motion pictures in England used this two -color process. Edwin Slosson describes the Kinemacolor system as “red and green being taken and projected alternately by means of a rotating disk of tinted filters. Because an image on the retina persists for about a sixteenth of a second before it fades away, each color fused with the succeeding one, except when movement was too fast (62).” <br />
<br />
Technicolor exposes two strips of black and white film to two different filters simultaneously. One was behind a red filter and the other a green. It had much the same problems as Kinemacolor because of the issue of speed. But since this was an additive method of color mixing, a subtractive method was tried. <br />
<br />
A successor the Gaumont Process used glass plates in an attempt to rectify the RG system. It “employed three pictures taken in the three primary colors by three lenses on the same film and projected through three objectives.” Dots, ruled lines or starch grains were used on the glass plates in the three colors. However, when enlarged, picture quality is diminished so although color is improved overall picture is not.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Bibliography==<br />
<br />
Billmeyer, Fred W., and Max Saltzman. Principles of Color Technology. Second Edition ed. New York: Wiley-Interscience, 1981. 25-66.<br />
<br />
Evans, Brian. "Foundations of a Visual Music." Computer Music Journal 29 (2005): 17-18.<br />
<br />
Gerritsen, Franz. Evolution in Color. Grand Rapids: Schiffer, Limited, 1988.<br />
<br />
Hirsch, Robert. Exploring Colour Photography: A Complete Guide. London: Laurence King, 2004.<br />
<br />
Hunt, R. W., and R. W. Hunt. Measuring Colour : A Photographer's Paradise. New York: Fountain P, Limited, 1996.<br />
<br />
Kindem, Gorham. "The Demise of Kinemacolor: Technological, Legal, Economic, and Aesthetic Problems in Early Color Cinema History." Cinema Journal 20 (1981): 3-14.<br />
<br />
Konica Minolta Sensing, Inc. "Precise Color Communication." Osaka, Japan: Konica Minolta, 1998.<br />
<br />
Landa, Edward R. "Albert H. Munsell: A Sense of Color at the Interface of Art and Science." Soil Science 169 (2004): 83-89.<br />
<br />
Microsoft Computer Dictionary. New York: Microsoft P, 2002."The NCS System." The <br />
<br />
Natural Color System. Scandinavian Color Institute. <http://www.ncscolour.com/webbizz/mainpage/main.asp.><br />
<br />
Slosson, Edwin E. "How New Color Movie Camera Works." The Science News-letter 14 (1928): 61-62.</div>Torpillehttp://www.cultureandcommunication.org/deadmedia/index.php?title=Old_Color_Spaces&diff=6256Old Color Spaces2008-12-03T18:41:59Z<p>Torpille: /* Colorimeters */</p>
<hr />
<div>The color space is a graphic and numerical representation of colors and their relationship to one another. The purpose of the chart is to standardize and quantify what is frequently a subjective experience. Detailed color standards are commonly used in product development and design arenas; standards become outdated rapidly as new products are developed. Color spaces and standards assist in "express[ing] a given color [of an object] accurately, describ[ing] that color to another person, and hav[ing] that person correctly reproduce the color we perceive" (Konica Minolta 1). <br />
<br />
==COLOR BASICS==<br />
<br />
'''HSB or The “Three Dimensions” of Color'''<br />
<br />
(Gerritsen/Microsoft)<br />
<br />
HSB stands for Hue-Saturation-Brightness and is a color model dependent upon a color wheel and the percentage of the amount of white present in a designated hue. <br />
<br />
===Hue===<br />
<br />
Hue is color itself as it is placed on a color wheel where each color has a percentage. Red is at 0o, yellow is 60o, green is 120o, etc. This percentage coincides with the frequency of light waves reflected of any given object for that color in respects to the color spectrum. Each tone group (red, green, etc) can than be affected by saturation and brightness in order to vary its shade and intensity. <br />
<br />
===Saturation===<br />
<br />
Often given as a percentage, saturation is the intensity of color for a specific hue. It can also be described as how different a color is from grey at any lightness. Colors that are more vivid are considered more saturated while colors that are more muddled and closer to grey are less saturated. <br />
<br />
<br />
===Brightness===<br />
<br />
Brightness of an object is a difficult thing to measure because it is perceived. While looking at a computer screen in a dark room, colors appear brighter than if the room was well lit. But generally, brightness measures the luminosity of a color. <br />
<br />
<br />
===Additive Color Mixing===<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Image:additive.jpg|thumb|left|Additive Color Mixing]]<br />
Additive color systems, such as RGB, mix the three primary colors together as a way to produce more colors. The secondary colors of cyan, magenta and yellow are results of mixing two of the three primary colors together. White is created when all three of the primary colors are mixed together proportionately. The additive color theory was discovered by James Clerk Maxwell in conjunction with a photographer, Thomas Sutton. Maxwell had Sutton photograph a piece of ribbon three times, each with a different filter over the lens (one red, one blue, one green). He then projected each image from a different projector onto a common screen. The three separate images then formed a complete one with full coloring. <br />
<br />
<br />
===Subtractive Color Mixing===<br />
<br />
[[Image:subtractive.jpg|thumb|right|Subtractive Color Mixing]]<br />
Louis Ducos du Hauron was responsible for the discovery of the subtractive color theory. Subtractive color mixing removes some colors from white light while allowing others to pass. The CYMK model is an example of a subtractive color space. It uses cyan, yellow, magenta and black to create colors. When white light is passed through one of these secondary and subtractive color filters, two of the primary colors which form the secondary color are transmitted through the filter and the third one is absorbed. When equal amounts of all the subtractive colors overlap, all primary colors are blocked and black is produced. Subtractive color mixing is more advantageous than additive because of its ability to create more colors. When the proportion of overlapping filters is changed, almost any color can be created. Viewing equipment for subtractive coloring is also cheaper (Kirsch 28-35).<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
----<br />
<br />
==The Munsell System==<br />
===Brief Bio===<br />
Albert H. Munsell lived from 1858-1918 in Boston, MA. He attended Massachusetts Normal Art School (now Massachusetts College of Art), where he later became a member of the faculty. Although the color system he began developing is widely used by scientists and artists alike, Munsell did not consider himself a scientist. He was a trained painter frustrated with the lack of color descriptions and a systematic color scheme. Munsell began developing his color system when he was a teaching aid for color composition students. As the system became more advanced, Munsell was able to share his color distinction system with well-respected scientists and engineers around Boston. He published “A Color Notation” in 1905, which described his system so far. Munsell wanted his system to be used in a broad sense, rather than only in science and art. His goal was to use it to teach concepts of color to primary school students. Unfortunately, Munsell’s health began to decline in 1914 and he passed away in Boston in 1918 at the age of 60. After his death, Dorothy Nickerson (who first worked as secretary to Munsell’s son) worked to adapt the Munsell Color System. The charts could finally be put to widespread use 30 years after Munsell died. (Landa)<br />
===The System===<br />
The Munsell system is now the most widely used and accepted color system. All other color systems that arise are compared to the Munsell System, which has come to be known as the standard color system. The system builds on the guiding principle of equal visual perception. This is the idea that we all perceive colors differently, but the system accounts for any small discrepancies based on comparison to a grayscale, assuming the eyes seek the balance of grayscale (Evans). The system is able to describe all possible colors in terms of three coordinates:<br />
<br />
1. Munsell Hue: the quality of a color described at red, yellow, blue and so on<br />
<br />
2. Munsell Value: the place where a color falls in terms of lightness when compared to a scale of grays from white to black<br />
<br />
3. Munsell Chroma: the degree of difference between a color and a gray of the same value.<br />
<br />
The Munsell Book of Color is a compilation of color samples, usually arranged in pages of a book, or on a color “tree.” The Munsell Value is vertical in a display and the Munsell Chroma is horizontal. The scale of grays can be considered the “trunk” of the color tree, going from white on top to black on the bottom. <br />
<br />
<br />
[[image: Munsell_tree.jpg|thumb|center|200px|Munsell Tree]], [[image: Munsell_tree_pages.jpg|thumb|center|200px|Munsell Book]], [[image: Munsell_tree_round.jpg|thumb|center|200px|Munsell Tree]]<br />
<br />
Each sample has a Munsell Notation, which tells us its position on the tree. The notation consists of three symbols that represent Munsell Hue, Munsell Value, and Munsell Chroma. <br />
<br />
[[image: Munsell_notation.jpg|thumb|left|300px|An example of Munsell Notation]]<br />
<br />
The Munsell System is the most accepted color system because colors are not limited to the samples shown, whereas other color systems are. Any color that can be conceived will fit into the Munsell System. (Billmeyer and Saltzman)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Natural Color System & Color Opponency==<br />
<br />
===Color Opponency===<br />
<br />
[[Image:coloropponent.jpg|thumb|left|Color Opponency]]<br />
The Natural Color System is based upon the color opponent theory. The color opponent theory focuses on the uniqueness of four hues and their inability to be described simultaneously. R.W.G. Hunt describes color opponency:<br />
“The hues red, yellow, green and blue are said to be unique because they cannot be described in terms of any combinations of other color names. Thus, for instance, although orange can be described as a yellowish red or reddish yellow, red cannot be described as a yellowish blue or a bluish yellow. In fact the four unique hues comprise two pairs, red and green, and yellow and blue; the colors in each of these pairs are opponent, in the sense that they cannot both be perceived simultaneously as component parts of any one color. That is, it is impossible to have a reddish green, or a greenish red, or a yellowish blue, or a bluish yellow. But yellowish reds… greenish yellows… bluish reds are all possible (140-141).”<br />
Black and white are also used in the color opponent theory to determine variations of light and dark.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===NCS===<br />
<br />
[[Image:NCSNotation.jpg|thumb|right|NCS Notation]]<br />
The Natural Color System was developed by the Scandinavian Color Institute. Using NCS a color is measured based upon its percentage in comparison to a color opponent pair. A color therefore that is purely red and has no green is at 100% red. Darkness of a color and saturation are also taken into consideration when measuring the color being presented. A sample notation taken from the NCS website is shown to the right. The letter S in front simply means that the NCS is responsible for measuring a specific color.[[Image:NCSWheel.jpg|thumb|left|NCS Color Wheel]] The nuance describes the “degree of resemblance to whiteness and blackness.” Chromaticness puts the color at a grey. The ten percent blackness thus mean that there is 40 percent whiteness in the color. The Y90R describes the hue of the color. This example shows a yellowish color with 90 percent red. The ten percent yellow is than inferred (Hunt 141-143/The NCS System). <br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
----<br />
------<br />
<br />
==The CIE Color Spaces==<br />
<br />
[[Image:cielab.jpg|thumb|left|CIE Yxy]]<br />
In 1931, the Commission Internationale de l'Eclairage (CIE) devised the Yxy color space, and in 1976 created the L*a*b* to "provide more uniform color differences in relation to visual differences" (Konica Minolta 14). The CIE systems are used in conjunction with a colorimeter.<br />
===CIE Yxy===<br />
The Yxy color space is based on the three-component theory of color vision, which places red, green, and blue as the primary color receptors in the eye. All other colors are combinations of those three primary colors. Because lightness and darkness cannot be taken into consideration with RGB values, a third variable, Y lightness, makes up the Yxy system. Moving towards the center of the graph increases lightness; moving toward the edges increases chromaticity (another word for saturation). (Konica Minolta 16)<br />
===CIE L*a*b*===<br />
[[Image:Yxy.jpg|thumb|right|CIE Lab showing the variables]]The CIE L*a*b* color space was invented because the original Yxy color space had a problem: "equal distances on the x, y chromaticity diagram did not correspond to equal perceived color differences" (Konica Minolta 18). L* indicates lightness and a* and b* are the hue coordinates. +a* is the red direction, -a is the green, +b is the yellow, and -b is the blue direction. In the center lies achromatism (grayness). (Konica Minolta 18)<br />
===Colorimeters===<br />
A colorimeter is the device that measures the color coordinates of an object. Colorimeters can detect even minute differences in color and are commonly used in production so that the color of the product can be standardized. Companies determine how much tolerance--how much color variation is acceptable--in a product. The colorimeter is very fast, producing coordinates in less than a minute, and can be utilized on assembly lines. It features a built in light source so that the light remains uniform, data memory and display, and constant viewing and illumination angles. It eliminates area effect (when an object appears to be a different color due to size, paint chips vs. a painted wall for example) and contrast effect (when an object appears to be a different color when viewed with other objects). Colorimeters measure colors with three photocells calibrated to match the CIE 1931 standards, so that the observer is constant for all measurements. Essentially, with the colorimeter, almost all of the variables that make an object appear to be a different color--observer differences, light source differences, and angle differences--are eliminated. There are other types of colorimeters for the purpose of measuring objects of varying texture, including spectroradiometers, which measure emitted, transmitted, and reflected light; spectrophotometers, which measure reflected and transmitted light; glossmeters, which measure gloss; and goniospectrophotometers, which measure reflected color as function of angle. (Konica Minolta 26).<br />
<br />
One problem with the standard colorimeter is that it cannot detect '''metamerism''', a phenomenon in which two objects appear to be the same color under certain illuminants but under different circumstances are revealed to be different colors--for example, picking out two black socks in the morning and then realizing under fluorescent light that one is actually navy. Since the colorimeter's light source mimics only daylight, a spectrophotometer is required to make sure that two objects will look the same color under different types of light, or "illuminants" (Kinoca Minolta 42).<br />
<br />
[[Image:cielch.jpg|thumb|left|NCS Color Wheel]]<br />
<br />
==Common Color Spaces==<br />
A color space is a three-dimensional concept, in that it considers hue, value, and chroma. The most commonly used color spaces are hue based. These include RGB (red, green, blue), RYB (red, yellow, blue), and CMY (cyan, magenta, yellow). <br />
[[image: Color_circles.png|thumb|right|400px|]]<br />
The left circle was developed by Johannes Itten; it is a circle of the primary colors. The primary colors are still taught in art schools and classes today using this circle. The circle on the right is used today in computer graphics. The additive primary colors of this circle (red, green, and blue) produce white light when added together on a computer. The subtractive primaries (cyan, magenta, and yellow) are the complementary colors on the circle. When they’re added on the computer, they produce black, or the absence of color. When comparing the two circles, we can see that they contradict each other. The circle on the left suggests that red and green are complementary to each other, but in the circle on the right, they are both primary. This example shows that color can be subjective, “the perception of color is inexact, culturally influenced, and personal” (Evans).<br />
<br />
==Obsolete Color Space: RG & Early Film==<br />
<br />
Both Kinemacolor in England and Technicolor used red and green primary colors to produce images in film until blue was introduced as an easier means to produce a fuller image. Early motion pictures in England used this two -color process. Edwin Slosson describes the Kinemacolor system as “red and green being taken and projected alternately by means of a rotating disk of tinted filters. Because an image on the retina persists for about a sixteenth of a second before it fades away, each color fused with the succeeding one, except when movement was too fast (62).” <br />
<br />
Technicolor exposes two strips of black and white film to two different filters simultaneously. One was behind a red filter and the other a green. It had much the same problems as Kinemacolor because of the issue of speed. But since this was an additive method of color mixing, a subtractive method was tried. <br />
<br />
A successor the Gaumont Process used glass plates in an attempt to rectify the RG system. It “employed three pictures taken in the three primary colors by three lenses on the same film and projected through three objectives.” Dots, ruled lines or starch grains were used on the glass plates in the three colors. However, when enlarged, picture quality is diminished so although color is improved overall picture is not.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Bibliography==<br />
<br />
Billmeyer, Fred W., and Max Saltzman. Principles of Color Technology. Second Edition ed. New York: Wiley-Interscience, 1981. 25-66.<br />
<br />
Evans, Brian. "Foundations of a Visual Music." Computer Music Journal 29 (2005): 17-18.<br />
<br />
Gerritsen, Franz. Evolution in Color. Grand Rapids: Schiffer, Limited, 1988.<br />
<br />
Hirsch, Robert. Exploring Colour Photography: A Complete Guide. London: Laurence King, 2004.<br />
<br />
Hunt, R. W., and R. W. Hunt. Measuring Colour : A Photographer's Paradise. New York: Fountain P, Limited, 1996.<br />
<br />
Kindem, Gorham. "The Demise of Kinemacolor: Technological, Legal, Economic, and Aesthetic Problems in Early Color Cinema History." Cinema Journal 20 (1981): 3-14.<br />
<br />
Landa, Edward R. "Albert H. Munsell: A Sense of Color at the Interface of Art and Science." Soil Science 169 (2004): 83-89.<br />
<br />
Microsoft Computer Dictionary. New York: Microsoft P, 2002."The NCS System." The <br />
<br />
Natural Color System. Scandinavian Color Institute. <http://www.ncscolour.com/webbizz/mainpage/main.asp.><br />
<br />
Slosson, Edwin E. "How New Color Movie Camera Works." The Science News-letter 14 (1928): 61-62.</div>Torpillehttp://www.cultureandcommunication.org/deadmedia/index.php?title=Old_Color_Spaces&diff=6255Old Color Spaces2008-12-03T18:40:28Z<p>Torpille: /* The CIE Color Spaces */</p>
<hr />
<div>The color space is a graphic and numerical representation of colors and their relationship to one another. The purpose of the chart is to standardize and quantify what is frequently a subjective experience. Detailed color standards are commonly used in product development and design arenas; standards become outdated rapidly as new products are developed. Color spaces and standards assist in "express[ing] a given color [of an object] accurately, describ[ing] that color to another person, and hav[ing] that person correctly reproduce the color we perceive" (Konica Minolta 1). <br />
<br />
==COLOR BASICS==<br />
<br />
'''HSB or The “Three Dimensions” of Color'''<br />
<br />
(Gerritsen/Microsoft)<br />
<br />
HSB stands for Hue-Saturation-Brightness and is a color model dependent upon a color wheel and the percentage of the amount of white present in a designated hue. <br />
<br />
===Hue===<br />
<br />
Hue is color itself as it is placed on a color wheel where each color has a percentage. Red is at 0o, yellow is 60o, green is 120o, etc. This percentage coincides with the frequency of light waves reflected of any given object for that color in respects to the color spectrum. Each tone group (red, green, etc) can than be affected by saturation and brightness in order to vary its shade and intensity. <br />
<br />
===Saturation===<br />
<br />
Often given as a percentage, saturation is the intensity of color for a specific hue. It can also be described as how different a color is from grey at any lightness. Colors that are more vivid are considered more saturated while colors that are more muddled and closer to grey are less saturated. <br />
<br />
<br />
===Brightness===<br />
<br />
Brightness of an object is a difficult thing to measure because it is perceived. While looking at a computer screen in a dark room, colors appear brighter than if the room was well lit. But generally, brightness measures the luminosity of a color. <br />
<br />
<br />
===Additive Color Mixing===<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Image:additive.jpg|thumb|left|Additive Color Mixing]]<br />
Additive color systems, such as RGB, mix the three primary colors together as a way to produce more colors. The secondary colors of cyan, magenta and yellow are results of mixing two of the three primary colors together. White is created when all three of the primary colors are mixed together proportionately. The additive color theory was discovered by James Clerk Maxwell in conjunction with a photographer, Thomas Sutton. Maxwell had Sutton photograph a piece of ribbon three times, each with a different filter over the lens (one red, one blue, one green). He then projected each image from a different projector onto a common screen. The three separate images then formed a complete one with full coloring. <br />
<br />
<br />
===Subtractive Color Mixing===<br />
<br />
[[Image:subtractive.jpg|thumb|right|Subtractive Color Mixing]]<br />
Louis Ducos du Hauron was responsible for the discovery of the subtractive color theory. Subtractive color mixing removes some colors from white light while allowing others to pass. The CYMK model is an example of a subtractive color space. It uses cyan, yellow, magenta and black to create colors. When white light is passed through one of these secondary and subtractive color filters, two of the primary colors which form the secondary color are transmitted through the filter and the third one is absorbed. When equal amounts of all the subtractive colors overlap, all primary colors are blocked and black is produced. Subtractive color mixing is more advantageous than additive because of its ability to create more colors. When the proportion of overlapping filters is changed, almost any color can be created. Viewing equipment for subtractive coloring is also cheaper (Kirsch 28-35).<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
----<br />
<br />
==The Munsell System==<br />
===Brief Bio===<br />
Albert H. Munsell lived from 1858-1918 in Boston, MA. He attended Massachusetts Normal Art School (now Massachusetts College of Art), where he later became a member of the faculty. Although the color system he began developing is widely used by scientists and artists alike, Munsell did not consider himself a scientist. He was a trained painter frustrated with the lack of color descriptions and a systematic color scheme. Munsell began developing his color system when he was a teaching aid for color composition students. As the system became more advanced, Munsell was able to share his color distinction system with well-respected scientists and engineers around Boston. He published “A Color Notation” in 1905, which described his system so far. Munsell wanted his system to be used in a broad sense, rather than only in science and art. His goal was to use it to teach concepts of color to primary school students. Unfortunately, Munsell’s health began to decline in 1914 and he passed away in Boston in 1918 at the age of 60. After his death, Dorothy Nickerson (who first worked as secretary to Munsell’s son) worked to adapt the Munsell Color System. The charts could finally be put to widespread use 30 years after Munsell died. (Landa)<br />
===The System===<br />
The Munsell system is now the most widely used and accepted color system. All other color systems that arise are compared to the Munsell System, which has come to be known as the standard color system. The system builds on the guiding principle of equal visual perception. This is the idea that we all perceive colors differently, but the system accounts for any small discrepancies based on comparison to a grayscale, assuming the eyes seek the balance of grayscale (Evans). The system is able to describe all possible colors in terms of three coordinates:<br />
<br />
1. Munsell Hue: the quality of a color described at red, yellow, blue and so on<br />
<br />
2. Munsell Value: the place where a color falls in terms of lightness when compared to a scale of grays from white to black<br />
<br />
3. Munsell Chroma: the degree of difference between a color and a gray of the same value.<br />
<br />
The Munsell Book of Color is a compilation of color samples, usually arranged in pages of a book, or on a color “tree.” The Munsell Value is vertical in a display and the Munsell Chroma is horizontal. The scale of grays can be considered the “trunk” of the color tree, going from white on top to black on the bottom. <br />
<br />
<br />
[[image: Munsell_tree.jpg|thumb|center|200px|Munsell Tree]], [[image: Munsell_tree_pages.jpg|thumb|center|200px|Munsell Book]], [[image: Munsell_tree_round.jpg|thumb|center|200px|Munsell Tree]]<br />
<br />
Each sample has a Munsell Notation, which tells us its position on the tree. The notation consists of three symbols that represent Munsell Hue, Munsell Value, and Munsell Chroma. <br />
<br />
[[image: Munsell_notation.jpg|thumb|left|300px|An example of Munsell Notation]]<br />
<br />
The Munsell System is the most accepted color system because colors are not limited to the samples shown, whereas other color systems are. Any color that can be conceived will fit into the Munsell System. (Billmeyer and Saltzman)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Natural Color System & Color Opponency==<br />
<br />
===Color Opponency===<br />
<br />
[[Image:coloropponent.jpg|thumb|left|Color Opponency]]<br />
The Natural Color System is based upon the color opponent theory. The color opponent theory focuses on the uniqueness of four hues and their inability to be described simultaneously. R.W.G. Hunt describes color opponency:<br />
“The hues red, yellow, green and blue are said to be unique because they cannot be described in terms of any combinations of other color names. Thus, for instance, although orange can be described as a yellowish red or reddish yellow, red cannot be described as a yellowish blue or a bluish yellow. In fact the four unique hues comprise two pairs, red and green, and yellow and blue; the colors in each of these pairs are opponent, in the sense that they cannot both be perceived simultaneously as component parts of any one color. That is, it is impossible to have a reddish green, or a greenish red, or a yellowish blue, or a bluish yellow. But yellowish reds… greenish yellows… bluish reds are all possible (140-141).”<br />
Black and white are also used in the color opponent theory to determine variations of light and dark.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===NCS===<br />
<br />
[[Image:NCSNotation.jpg|thumb|right|NCS Notation]]<br />
The Natural Color System was developed by the Scandinavian Color Institute. Using NCS a color is measured based upon its percentage in comparison to a color opponent pair. A color therefore that is purely red and has no green is at 100% red. Darkness of a color and saturation are also taken into consideration when measuring the color being presented. A sample notation taken from the NCS website is shown to the right. The letter S in front simply means that the NCS is responsible for measuring a specific color.[[Image:NCSWheel.jpg|thumb|left|NCS Color Wheel]] The nuance describes the “degree of resemblance to whiteness and blackness.” Chromaticness puts the color at a grey. The ten percent blackness thus mean that there is 40 percent whiteness in the color. The Y90R describes the hue of the color. This example shows a yellowish color with 90 percent red. The ten percent yellow is than inferred (Hunt 141-143/The NCS System). <br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
----<br />
------<br />
<br />
==The CIE Color Spaces==<br />
<br />
[[Image:cielab.jpg|thumb|left|CIE Yxy]]<br />
In 1931, the Commission Internationale de l'Eclairage (CIE) devised the Yxy color space, and in 1976 created the L*a*b* to "provide more uniform color differences in relation to visual differences" (Konica Minolta 14). The CIE systems are used in conjunction with a colorimeter.<br />
===CIE Yxy===<br />
The Yxy color space is based on the three-component theory of color vision, which places red, green, and blue as the primary color receptors in the eye. All other colors are combinations of those three primary colors. Because lightness and darkness cannot be taken into consideration with RGB values, a third variable, Y lightness, makes up the Yxy system. Moving towards the center of the graph increases lightness; moving toward the edges increases chromaticity (another word for saturation). (Konica Minolta 16)<br />
===CIE L*a*b*===<br />
[[Image:Yxy.jpg|thumb|right|CIE Lab showing the variables]]The CIE L*a*b* color space was invented because the original Yxy color space had a problem: "equal distances on the x, y chromaticity diagram did not correspond to equal perceived color differences" (Konica Minolta 18). L* indicates lightness and a* and b* are the hue coordinates. +a* is the red direction, -a is the green, +b is the yellow, and -b is the blue direction. In the center lies achromatism (grayness). (Konica Minolta 18)<br />
===Colorimeters===<br />
A colorimeter is the device that measures the color coordinates of an object. Colorimeters can detect even minute differences in color and are commonly used in production so that the color of the product can be standardized. Companies determine how much tolerance--how much color variation is acceptable--in a product. The colorimeter is very fast, producing coordinates in less than a minute, and can be utilized on assembly lines. It features a built in light source so that the light remains uniform, data memory and display, and constant viewing and illumination angles. It eliminates area effect (when an object appears to be a different color due to size, paint chips vs. a painted wall for example) and contrast effect (when an object appears to be a different color when viewed with other objects). Colorimeters measure colors with three photocells calibrated to match the CIE 1931 standards, so that the observer is constant for all measurements. Essentially, with the colorimeter, almost all of the variables that make an object appear to be a different color--observer differences, light source differences, and angle differences--are eliminated. There are other types of colorimeters for the purpose of measuring objects of varying texture, including spectroradiometers, which measure emitted, transmitted, and reflected light; spectrophotometers, which measure reflected and transmitted light; glossmeters, which measure gloss; and goniospectrophotometers, which measure reflected color as function of angle. (Konica Minolta 26).<br />
<br />
One problem with the standard colorimeter is that it cannot detect '''metamerism''', a phenomenon in which two objects appear to be the same color under certain circumstances but under different circumstances are revealed to be different colors--for example, picking out two black socks in the morning and then realizing under fluorescent light that one is actually navy. Since the colorimeter's light source mimics only daylight, a spectrophotometer is required to make sure that two objects will look the same color under different types of light, or "illuminants" (Kinoca Minolta 42).<br />
<br />
[[Image:cielch.jpg|thumb|left|NCS Color Wheel]]<br />
<br />
==Common Color Spaces==<br />
A color space is a three-dimensional concept, in that it considers hue, value, and chroma. The most commonly used color spaces are hue based. These include RGB (red, green, blue), RYB (red, yellow, blue), and CMY (cyan, magenta, yellow). <br />
[[image: Color_circles.png|thumb|right|400px|]]<br />
The left circle was developed by Johannes Itten; it is a circle of the primary colors. The primary colors are still taught in art schools and classes today using this circle. The circle on the right is used today in computer graphics. The additive primary colors of this circle (red, green, and blue) produce white light when added together on a computer. The subtractive primaries (cyan, magenta, and yellow) are the complementary colors on the circle. When they’re added on the computer, they produce black, or the absence of color. When comparing the two circles, we can see that they contradict each other. The circle on the left suggests that red and green are complementary to each other, but in the circle on the right, they are both primary. This example shows that color can be subjective, “the perception of color is inexact, culturally influenced, and personal” (Evans).<br />
<br />
==Obsolete Color Space: RG & Early Film==<br />
<br />
Both Kinemacolor in England and Technicolor used red and green primary colors to produce images in film until blue was introduced as an easier means to produce a fuller image. Early motion pictures in England used this two -color process. Edwin Slosson describes the Kinemacolor system as “red and green being taken and projected alternately by means of a rotating disk of tinted filters. Because an image on the retina persists for about a sixteenth of a second before it fades away, each color fused with the succeeding one, except when movement was too fast (62).” <br />
<br />
Technicolor exposes two strips of black and white film to two different filters simultaneously. One was behind a red filter and the other a green. It had much the same problems as Kinemacolor because of the issue of speed. But since this was an additive method of color mixing, a subtractive method was tried. <br />
<br />
A successor the Gaumont Process used glass plates in an attempt to rectify the RG system. It “employed three pictures taken in the three primary colors by three lenses on the same film and projected through three objectives.” Dots, ruled lines or starch grains were used on the glass plates in the three colors. However, when enlarged, picture quality is diminished so although color is improved overall picture is not.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Bibliography==<br />
<br />
Billmeyer, Fred W., and Max Saltzman. Principles of Color Technology. Second Edition ed. New York: Wiley-Interscience, 1981. 25-66.<br />
<br />
Evans, Brian. "Foundations of a Visual Music." Computer Music Journal 29 (2005): 17-18.<br />
<br />
Gerritsen, Franz. Evolution in Color. Grand Rapids: Schiffer, Limited, 1988.<br />
<br />
Hirsch, Robert. Exploring Colour Photography: A Complete Guide. London: Laurence King, 2004.<br />
<br />
Hunt, R. W., and R. W. Hunt. Measuring Colour : A Photographer's Paradise. New York: Fountain P, Limited, 1996.<br />
<br />
Kindem, Gorham. "The Demise of Kinemacolor: Technological, Legal, Economic, and Aesthetic Problems in Early Color Cinema History." Cinema Journal 20 (1981): 3-14.<br />
<br />
Landa, Edward R. "Albert H. Munsell: A Sense of Color at the Interface of Art and Science." Soil Science 169 (2004): 83-89.<br />
<br />
Microsoft Computer Dictionary. New York: Microsoft P, 2002."The NCS System." The <br />
<br />
Natural Color System. Scandinavian Color Institute. <http://www.ncscolour.com/webbizz/mainpage/main.asp.><br />
<br />
Slosson, Edwin E. "How New Color Movie Camera Works." The Science News-letter 14 (1928): 61-62.</div>Torpillehttp://www.cultureandcommunication.org/deadmedia/index.php?title=Old_Color_Spaces&diff=6252Old Color Spaces2008-12-03T18:34:44Z<p>Torpille: /* The CIE Color Spaces */</p>
<hr />
<div>The color space is a graphic and numerical representation of colors and their relationship to one another. The purpose of the chart is to standardize and quantify what is frequently a subjective experience. Detailed color standards are commonly used in product development and design arenas; standards become outdated rapidly as new products are developed. Color spaces and standards assist in "express[ing] a given color [of an object] accurately, describ[ing] that color to another person, and hav[ing] that person correctly reproduce the color we perceive" (Konica Minolta 1). <br />
<br />
==COLOR BASICS==<br />
<br />
'''HSB or The “Three Dimensions” of Color'''<br />
<br />
(Gerritsen/Microsoft)<br />
<br />
HSB stands for Hue-Saturation-Brightness and is a color model dependent upon a color wheel and the percentage of the amount of white present in a designated hue. <br />
<br />
===Hue===<br />
<br />
Hue is color itself as it is placed on a color wheel where each color has a percentage. Red is at 0o, yellow is 60o, green is 120o, etc. This percentage coincides with the frequency of light waves reflected of any given object for that color in respects to the color spectrum. Each tone group (red, green, etc) can than be affected by saturation and brightness in order to vary its shade and intensity. <br />
<br />
===Saturation===<br />
<br />
Often given as a percentage, saturation is the intensity of color for a specific hue. It can also be described as how different a color is from grey at any lightness. Colors that are more vivid are considered more saturated while colors that are more muddled and closer to grey are less saturated. <br />
<br />
<br />
===Brightness===<br />
<br />
Brightness of an object is a difficult thing to measure because it is perceived. While looking at a computer screen in a dark room, colors appear brighter than if the room was well lit. But generally, brightness measures the luminosity of a color. <br />
<br />
<br />
===Additive Color Mixing===<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Image:additive.jpg|thumb|left|Additive Color Mixing]]<br />
Additive color systems, such as RGB, mix the three primary colors together as a way to produce more colors. The secondary colors of cyan, magenta and yellow are results of mixing two of the three primary colors together. White is created when all three of the primary colors are mixed together proportionately. The additive color theory was discovered by James Clerk Maxwell in conjunction with a photographer, Thomas Sutton. Maxwell had Sutton photograph a piece of ribbon three times, each with a different filter over the lens (one red, one blue, one green). He then projected each image from a different projector onto a common screen. The three separate images then formed a complete one with full coloring. <br />
<br />
<br />
===Subtractive Color Mixing===<br />
<br />
[[Image:subtractive.jpg|thumb|right|Subtractive Color Mixing]]<br />
Louis Ducos du Hauron was responsible for the discovery of the subtractive color theory. Subtractive color mixing removes some colors from white light while allowing others to pass. The CYMK model is an example of a subtractive color space. It uses cyan, yellow, magenta and black to create colors. When white light is passed through one of these secondary and subtractive color filters, two of the primary colors which form the secondary color are transmitted through the filter and the third one is absorbed. When equal amounts of all the subtractive colors overlap, all primary colors are blocked and black is produced. Subtractive color mixing is more advantageous than additive because of its ability to create more colors. When the proportion of overlapping filters is changed, almost any color can be created. Viewing equipment for subtractive coloring is also cheaper (Kirsch 28-35).<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
----<br />
<br />
==The Munsell System==<br />
===Brief Bio===<br />
Albert H. Munsell lived from 1858-1918 in Boston, MA. He attended Massachusetts Normal Art School (now Massachusetts College of Art), where he later became a member of the faculty. Although the color system he began developing is widely used by scientists and artists alike, Munsell did not consider himself a scientist. He was a trained painter frustrated with the lack of color descriptions and a systematic color scheme. Munsell began developing his color system when he was a teaching aid for color composition students. As the system became more advanced, Munsell was able to share his color distinction system with well-respected scientists and engineers around Boston. He published “A Color Notation” in 1905, which described his system so far. Munsell wanted his system to be used in a broad sense, rather than only in science and art. His goal was to use it to teach concepts of color to primary school students. Unfortunately, Munsell’s health began to decline in 1914 and he passed away in Boston in 1918 at the age of 60. After his death, Dorothy Nickerson (who first worked as secretary to Munsell’s son) worked to adapt the Munsell Color System. The charts could finally be put to widespread use 30 years after Munsell died. (Landa)<br />
===The System===<br />
The Munsell system is now the most widely used and accepted color system. All other color systems that arise are compared to the Munsell System, which has come to be known as the standard color system. The system builds on the guiding principle of equal visual perception. This is the idea that we all perceive colors differently, but the system accounts for any small discrepancies based on comparison to a grayscale, assuming the eyes seek the balance of grayscale (Evans). The system is able to describe all possible colors in terms of three coordinates:<br />
<br />
1. Munsell Hue: the quality of a color described at red, yellow, blue and so on<br />
<br />
2. Munsell Value: the place where a color falls in terms of lightness when compared to a scale of grays from white to black<br />
<br />
3. Munsell Chroma: the degree of difference between a color and a gray of the same value.<br />
<br />
The Munsell Book of Color is a compilation of color samples, usually arranged in pages of a book, or on a color “tree.” The Munsell Value is vertical in a display and the Munsell Chroma is horizontal. The scale of grays can be considered the “trunk” of the color tree, going from white on top to black on the bottom. <br />
<br />
<br />
[[image: Munsell_tree.jpg|thumb|center|200px|Munsell Tree]], [[image: Munsell_tree_pages.jpg|thumb|center|200px|Munsell Book]], [[image: Munsell_tree_round.jpg|thumb|center|200px|Munsell Tree]]<br />
<br />
Each sample has a Munsell Notation, which tells us its position on the tree. The notation consists of three symbols that represent Munsell Hue, Munsell Value, and Munsell Chroma. <br />
<br />
[[image: Munsell_notation.jpg|thumb|left|300px|An example of Munsell Notation]]<br />
<br />
The Munsell System is the most accepted color system because colors are not limited to the samples shown, whereas other color systems are. Any color that can be conceived will fit into the Munsell System. (Billmeyer and Saltzman)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Natural Color System & Color Opponency==<br />
<br />
===Color Opponency===<br />
<br />
[[Image:coloropponent.jpg|thumb|left|Color Opponency]]<br />
The Natural Color System is based upon the color opponent theory. The color opponent theory focuses on the uniqueness of four hues and their inability to be described simultaneously. R.W.G. Hunt describes color opponency:<br />
“The hues red, yellow, green and blue are said to be unique because they cannot be described in terms of any combinations of other color names. Thus, for instance, although orange can be described as a yellowish red or reddish yellow, red cannot be described as a yellowish blue or a bluish yellow. In fact the four unique hues comprise two pairs, red and green, and yellow and blue; the colors in each of these pairs are opponent, in the sense that they cannot both be perceived simultaneously as component parts of any one color. That is, it is impossible to have a reddish green, or a greenish red, or a yellowish blue, or a bluish yellow. But yellowish reds… greenish yellows… bluish reds are all possible (140-141).”<br />
Black and white are also used in the color opponent theory to determine variations of light and dark.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===NCS===<br />
<br />
[[Image:NCSNotation.jpg|thumb|right|NCS Notation]]<br />
The Natural Color System was developed by the Scandinavian Color Institute. Using NCS a color is measured based upon its percentage in comparison to a color opponent pair. A color therefore that is purely red and has no green is at 100% red. Darkness of a color and saturation are also taken into consideration when measuring the color being presented. A sample notation taken from the NCS website is shown to the right. The letter S in front simply means that the NCS is responsible for measuring a specific color.[[Image:NCSWheel.jpg|thumb|left|NCS Color Wheel]] The nuance describes the “degree of resemblance to whiteness and blackness.” Chromaticness puts the color at a grey. The ten percent blackness thus mean that there is 40 percent whiteness in the color. The Y90R describes the hue of the color. This example shows a yellowish color with 90 percent red. The ten percent yellow is than inferred (Hunt 141-143/The NCS System). <br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
----<br />
------<br />
<br />
==The CIE Color Spaces==<br />
<br />
[[Image:cielab.jpg|thumb|left|CIE Yxy]]<br />
In 1931, the Commission Internationale de l'Eclairage (CIE) devised the Yxy color space, and in 1976 created the L*a*b* to "provide more uniform color differences in relation to visual differences" (Konica Minolta 14). The CIE systems are used in conjunction with a colorimeter.<br />
===CIE Yxy===<br />
The Yxy color space is based on the three-component theory of color vision, which places red, green, and blue as the primary color receptors in the eye. All other colors are combinations of those three primary colors. Because lightness and darkness cannot be taken into consideration with RGB values, a third variable, Y lightness, makes up the Yxy system. Moving towards the center of the graph increases lightness; moving toward the edges increases chromaticity (another word for saturation). (Konica Minolta 16)<br />
===CIE L*a*b*===<br />
[[Image:Yxy.jpg|thumb|right|CIE Lab showing the variables]]The CIE L*a*b* color space was invented because the original Yxy color space had a problem: "equal distances on the x, y chromaticity diagram did not correspond to equal perceived color differences" (Konica Minolta 18). L* indicates lightness and a* and b* are the hue coordinates. +a* is the red direction, -a is the green, +b is the yellow, and -b is the blue direction. In the center lies achromatism (grayness). (Konica Minolta 18)<br />
===Colorimeters===<br />
A colorimeter is the device that measures the color coordinates of an object. It is useful for avoiding '''metamerism''', a phenomenon in which two objects appear to be the same color under certain circumstances but under different circumstances are revealed to be different colors--for example, picking out two black socks in the morning and then realizing under fluorescent light that one is actually navy. Colorimeters can detect even minute differences in color and are commonly used in production so that the color of the product can be standardized. Companies determine how much tolerance--how much color variation is acceptable--in a product. The colorimeter is very fast, producing coordinates in less than a minute, and can be utilized on assembly lines. It features a built in light source so that the light remains uniform, data memory and display, and constant viewing and illumination angles. It eliminates area effect (when an object appears to be a different color due to size, paint chips vs. a painted wall for example) and contrast effect (when an object appears to be a different color when viewed with other objects). Colorimeters measure colors with three photocells calibrated to match the CIE 1931 standards, so that the observer is constant for all measurements. Essentially, with the colorimeter, almost all of the variables that make an object appear to be a different color--observer differences, light source differences, and angle differences--are eliminated. There are other types of colorimeters for the purpose of measuring objects of varying texture, including spectroradiometers, which measure emitted, transmitted, and reflected light; spectrophotometers, which measure reflected and transmitted light; glossmeters, which measure gloss; and goniospectrophotometers, which measure reflected color as function of angle. (Konica Minolta 26).<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Image:cielch.jpg|thumb|left|NCS Color Wheel]]<br />
<br />
==Common Color Spaces==<br />
A color space is a three-dimensional concept, in that it considers hue, value, and chroma. The most commonly used color spaces are hue based. These include RGB (red, green, blue), RYB (red, yellow, blue), and CMY (cyan, magenta, yellow). <br />
[[image: Color_circles.png|thumb|right|400px|]]<br />
The left circle was developed by Johannes Itten; it is a circle of the primary colors. The primary colors are still taught in art schools and classes today using this circle. The circle on the right is used today in computer graphics. The additive primary colors of this circle (red, green, and blue) produce white light when added together on a computer. The subtractive primaries (cyan, magenta, and yellow) are the complementary colors on the circle. When they’re added on the computer, they produce black, or the absence of color. When comparing the two circles, we can see that they contradict each other. The circle on the left suggests that red and green are complementary to each other, but in the circle on the right, they are both primary. This example shows that color can be subjective, “the perception of color is inexact, culturally influenced, and personal” (Evans).<br />
<br />
==Obsolete Color Space: RG & Early Film==<br />
<br />
Both Kinemacolor in England and Technicolor used red and green primary colors to produce images in film until blue was introduced as an easier means to produce a fuller image. Early motion pictures in England used this two -color process. Edwin Slosson describes the Kinemacolor system as “red and green being taken and projected alternately by means of a rotating disk of tinted filters. Because an image on the retina persists for about a sixteenth of a second before it fades away, each color fused with the succeeding one, except when movement was too fast (62).” <br />
<br />
Technicolor exposes two strips of black and white film to two different filters simultaneously. One was behind a red filter and the other a green. It had much the same problems as Kinemacolor because of the issue of speed. But since this was an additive method of color mixing, a subtractive method was tried. <br />
<br />
A successor the Gaumont Process used glass plates in an attempt to rectify the RG system. It “employed three pictures taken in the three primary colors by three lenses on the same film and projected through three objectives.” Dots, ruled lines or starch grains were used on the glass plates in the three colors. However, when enlarged, picture quality is diminished so although color is improved overall picture is not.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Bibliography==<br />
<br />
Billmeyer, Fred W., and Max Saltzman. Principles of Color Technology. Second Edition ed. New York: Wiley-Interscience, 1981. 25-66.<br />
<br />
Evans, Brian. "Foundations of a Visual Music." Computer Music Journal 29 (2005): 17-18.<br />
<br />
Gerritsen, Franz. Evolution in Color. Grand Rapids: Schiffer, Limited, 1988.<br />
<br />
Hirsch, Robert. Exploring Colour Photography: A Complete Guide. London: Laurence King, 2004.<br />
<br />
Hunt, R. W., and R. W. Hunt. Measuring Colour : A Photographer's Paradise. New York: Fountain P, Limited, 1996.<br />
<br />
Kindem, Gorham. "The Demise of Kinemacolor: Technological, Legal, Economic, and Aesthetic Problems in Early Color Cinema History." Cinema Journal 20 (1981): 3-14.<br />
<br />
Landa, Edward R. "Albert H. Munsell: A Sense of Color at the Interface of Art and Science." Soil Science 169 (2004): 83-89.<br />
<br />
Microsoft Computer Dictionary. New York: Microsoft P, 2002."The NCS System." The <br />
<br />
Natural Color System. Scandinavian Color Institute. <http://www.ncscolour.com/webbizz/mainpage/main.asp.><br />
<br />
Slosson, Edwin E. "How New Color Movie Camera Works." The Science News-letter 14 (1928): 61-62.</div>Torpillehttp://www.cultureandcommunication.org/deadmedia/index.php?title=Old_Color_Spaces&diff=6251Old Color Spaces2008-12-03T18:33:47Z<p>Torpille: /* The CIE L*C*h* Color Space */</p>
<hr />
<div>The color space is a graphic and numerical representation of colors and their relationship to one another. The purpose of the chart is to standardize and quantify what is frequently a subjective experience. Detailed color standards are commonly used in product development and design arenas; standards become outdated rapidly as new products are developed. Color spaces and standards assist in "express[ing] a given color [of an object] accurately, describ[ing] that color to another person, and hav[ing] that person correctly reproduce the color we perceive" (Konica Minolta 1). <br />
<br />
==COLOR BASICS==<br />
<br />
'''HSB or The “Three Dimensions” of Color'''<br />
<br />
(Gerritsen/Microsoft)<br />
<br />
HSB stands for Hue-Saturation-Brightness and is a color model dependent upon a color wheel and the percentage of the amount of white present in a designated hue. <br />
<br />
===Hue===<br />
<br />
Hue is color itself as it is placed on a color wheel where each color has a percentage. Red is at 0o, yellow is 60o, green is 120o, etc. This percentage coincides with the frequency of light waves reflected of any given object for that color in respects to the color spectrum. Each tone group (red, green, etc) can than be affected by saturation and brightness in order to vary its shade and intensity. <br />
<br />
===Saturation===<br />
<br />
Often given as a percentage, saturation is the intensity of color for a specific hue. It can also be described as how different a color is from grey at any lightness. Colors that are more vivid are considered more saturated while colors that are more muddled and closer to grey are less saturated. <br />
<br />
<br />
===Brightness===<br />
<br />
Brightness of an object is a difficult thing to measure because it is perceived. While looking at a computer screen in a dark room, colors appear brighter than if the room was well lit. But generally, brightness measures the luminosity of a color. <br />
<br />
<br />
===Additive Color Mixing===<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Image:additive.jpg|thumb|left|Additive Color Mixing]]<br />
Additive color systems, such as RGB, mix the three primary colors together as a way to produce more colors. The secondary colors of cyan, magenta and yellow are results of mixing two of the three primary colors together. White is created when all three of the primary colors are mixed together proportionately. The additive color theory was discovered by James Clerk Maxwell in conjunction with a photographer, Thomas Sutton. Maxwell had Sutton photograph a piece of ribbon three times, each with a different filter over the lens (one red, one blue, one green). He then projected each image from a different projector onto a common screen. The three separate images then formed a complete one with full coloring. <br />
<br />
<br />
===Subtractive Color Mixing===<br />
<br />
[[Image:subtractive.jpg|thumb|right|Subtractive Color Mixing]]<br />
Louis Ducos du Hauron was responsible for the discovery of the subtractive color theory. Subtractive color mixing removes some colors from white light while allowing others to pass. The CYMK model is an example of a subtractive color space. It uses cyan, yellow, magenta and black to create colors. When white light is passed through one of these secondary and subtractive color filters, two of the primary colors which form the secondary color are transmitted through the filter and the third one is absorbed. When equal amounts of all the subtractive colors overlap, all primary colors are blocked and black is produced. Subtractive color mixing is more advantageous than additive because of its ability to create more colors. When the proportion of overlapping filters is changed, almost any color can be created. Viewing equipment for subtractive coloring is also cheaper (Kirsch 28-35).<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
----<br />
<br />
==The Munsell System==<br />
===Brief Bio===<br />
Albert H. Munsell lived from 1858-1918 in Boston, MA. He attended Massachusetts Normal Art School (now Massachusetts College of Art), where he later became a member of the faculty. Although the color system he began developing is widely used by scientists and artists alike, Munsell did not consider himself a scientist. He was a trained painter frustrated with the lack of color descriptions and a systematic color scheme. Munsell began developing his color system when he was a teaching aid for color composition students. As the system became more advanced, Munsell was able to share his color distinction system with well-respected scientists and engineers around Boston. He published “A Color Notation” in 1905, which described his system so far. Munsell wanted his system to be used in a broad sense, rather than only in science and art. His goal was to use it to teach concepts of color to primary school students. Unfortunately, Munsell’s health began to decline in 1914 and he passed away in Boston in 1918 at the age of 60. After his death, Dorothy Nickerson (who first worked as secretary to Munsell’s son) worked to adapt the Munsell Color System. The charts could finally be put to widespread use 30 years after Munsell died. (Landa)<br />
===The System===<br />
The Munsell system is now the most widely used and accepted color system. All other color systems that arise are compared to the Munsell System, which has come to be known as the standard color system. The system builds on the guiding principle of equal visual perception. This is the idea that we all perceive colors differently, but the system accounts for any small discrepancies based on comparison to a grayscale, assuming the eyes seek the balance of grayscale (Evans). The system is able to describe all possible colors in terms of three coordinates:<br />
<br />
1. Munsell Hue: the quality of a color described at red, yellow, blue and so on<br />
<br />
2. Munsell Value: the place where a color falls in terms of lightness when compared to a scale of grays from white to black<br />
<br />
3. Munsell Chroma: the degree of difference between a color and a gray of the same value.<br />
<br />
The Munsell Book of Color is a compilation of color samples, usually arranged in pages of a book, or on a color “tree.” The Munsell Value is vertical in a display and the Munsell Chroma is horizontal. The scale of grays can be considered the “trunk” of the color tree, going from white on top to black on the bottom. <br />
<br />
<br />
[[image: Munsell_tree.jpg|thumb|center|200px|Munsell Tree]], [[image: Munsell_tree_pages.jpg|thumb|center|200px|Munsell Book]], [[image: Munsell_tree_round.jpg|thumb|center|200px|Munsell Tree]]<br />
<br />
Each sample has a Munsell Notation, which tells us its position on the tree. The notation consists of three symbols that represent Munsell Hue, Munsell Value, and Munsell Chroma. <br />
<br />
[[image: Munsell_notation.jpg|thumb|left|300px|An example of Munsell Notation]]<br />
<br />
The Munsell System is the most accepted color system because colors are not limited to the samples shown, whereas other color systems are. Any color that can be conceived will fit into the Munsell System. (Billmeyer and Saltzman)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Natural Color System & Color Opponency==<br />
<br />
===Color Opponency===<br />
<br />
[[Image:coloropponent.jpg|thumb|left|Color Opponency]]<br />
The Natural Color System is based upon the color opponent theory. The color opponent theory focuses on the uniqueness of four hues and their inability to be described simultaneously. R.W.G. Hunt describes color opponency:<br />
“The hues red, yellow, green and blue are said to be unique because they cannot be described in terms of any combinations of other color names. Thus, for instance, although orange can be described as a yellowish red or reddish yellow, red cannot be described as a yellowish blue or a bluish yellow. In fact the four unique hues comprise two pairs, red and green, and yellow and blue; the colors in each of these pairs are opponent, in the sense that they cannot both be perceived simultaneously as component parts of any one color. That is, it is impossible to have a reddish green, or a greenish red, or a yellowish blue, or a bluish yellow. But yellowish reds… greenish yellows… bluish reds are all possible (140-141).”<br />
Black and white are also used in the color opponent theory to determine variations of light and dark.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===NCS===<br />
<br />
[[Image:NCSNotation.jpg|thumb|right|NCS Notation]]<br />
The Natural Color System was developed by the Scandinavian Color Institute. Using NCS a color is measured based upon its percentage in comparison to a color opponent pair. A color therefore that is purely red and has no green is at 100% red. Darkness of a color and saturation are also taken into consideration when measuring the color being presented. A sample notation taken from the NCS website is shown to the right. The letter S in front simply means that the NCS is responsible for measuring a specific color.[[Image:NCSWheel.jpg|thumb|left|NCS Color Wheel]] The nuance describes the “degree of resemblance to whiteness and blackness.” Chromaticness puts the color at a grey. The ten percent blackness thus mean that there is 40 percent whiteness in the color. The Y90R describes the hue of the color. This example shows a yellowish color with 90 percent red. The ten percent yellow is than inferred (Hunt 141-143/The NCS System). <br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
----<br />
------<br />
<br />
==The CIE Color Spaces==<br />
<br />
[[Image:cielab.jpg|thumb|left|CIE Yxy]]<br />
In 1931, the Commission Internationale de l'Eclairage (CIE) devised the Yxy color space, and in 1976 created the L*a*b* to "provide more uniform color differences in relation to visual differences" (Konica Minolta 14). The CIE systems are used in conjunction with a colorimeter.[[Image:Yxy.jpg|thumb|right|Yxy]]<br />
===CIE Yxy===<br />
The Yxy color space is based on the three-component theory of color vision, which places red, green, and blue as the primary color receptors in the eye. All other colors are combinations of those three primary colors. Because lightness and darkness cannot be taken into consideration with RGB values, a third variable, Y lightness, makes up the Yxy system. Moving towards the center of the graph increases lightness; moving toward the edges increases chromaticity (another word for saturation). (Konica Minolta 16)<br />
===CIE L*a*b*===<br />
The CIE L*a*b* color space was invented because the original Yxy color space had a problem: "equal distances on the x, y chromaticity diagram did not correspond to equal perceived color differences" (Konica Minolta 18). L* indicates lightness and a* and b* are the hue coordinates. +a* is the red direction, -a is the green, +b is the yellow, and -b is the blue direction. In the center lies achromatism (grayness). (Konica Minolta 18)<br />
===Colorimeters===<br />
A colorimeter is the device that measures the color coordinates of an object. It is useful for avoiding '''metamerism''', a phenomenon in which two objects appear to be the same color under certain circumstances but under different circumstances are revealed to be different colors--for example, picking out two black socks in the morning and then realizing under fluorescent light that one is actually navy. Colorimeters can detect even minute differences in color and are commonly used in production so that the color of the product can be standardized. Companies determine how much tolerance--how much color variation is acceptable--in a product. The colorimeter is very fast, producing coordinates in less than a minute, and can be utilized on assembly lines. It features a built in light source so that the light remains uniform, data memory and display, and constant viewing and illumination angles. It eliminates area effect (when an object appears to be a different color due to size, paint chips vs. a painted wall for example) and contrast effect (when an object appears to be a different color when viewed with other objects). Colorimeters measure colors with three photocells calibrated to match the CIE 1931 standards, so that the observer is constant for all measurements. Essentially, with the colorimeter, almost all of the variables that make an object appear to be a different color--observer differences, light source differences, and angle differences--are eliminated. There are other types of colorimeters for the purpose of measuring objects of varying texture, including spectroradiometers, which measure emitted, transmitted, and reflected light; spectrophotometers, which measure reflected and transmitted light; glossmeters, which measure gloss; and goniospectrophotometers, which measure reflected color as function of angle. (Konica Minolta 26).<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Image:cielch.jpg|thumb|left|NCS Color Wheel]]<br />
<br />
==Common Color Spaces==<br />
A color space is a three-dimensional concept, in that it considers hue, value, and chroma. The most commonly used color spaces are hue based. These include RGB (red, green, blue), RYB (red, yellow, blue), and CMY (cyan, magenta, yellow). <br />
[[image: Color_circles.png|thumb|right|400px|]]<br />
The left circle was developed by Johannes Itten; it is a circle of the primary colors. The primary colors are still taught in art schools and classes today using this circle. The circle on the right is used today in computer graphics. The additive primary colors of this circle (red, green, and blue) produce white light when added together on a computer. The subtractive primaries (cyan, magenta, and yellow) are the complementary colors on the circle. When they’re added on the computer, they produce black, or the absence of color. When comparing the two circles, we can see that they contradict each other. The circle on the left suggests that red and green are complementary to each other, but in the circle on the right, they are both primary. This example shows that color can be subjective, “the perception of color is inexact, culturally influenced, and personal” (Evans).<br />
<br />
==Obsolete Color Space: RG & Early Film==<br />
<br />
Both Kinemacolor in England and Technicolor used red and green primary colors to produce images in film until blue was introduced as an easier means to produce a fuller image. Early motion pictures in England used this two -color process. Edwin Slosson describes the Kinemacolor system as “red and green being taken and projected alternately by means of a rotating disk of tinted filters. Because an image on the retina persists for about a sixteenth of a second before it fades away, each color fused with the succeeding one, except when movement was too fast (62).” <br />
<br />
Technicolor exposes two strips of black and white film to two different filters simultaneously. One was behind a red filter and the other a green. It had much the same problems as Kinemacolor because of the issue of speed. But since this was an additive method of color mixing, a subtractive method was tried. <br />
<br />
A successor the Gaumont Process used glass plates in an attempt to rectify the RG system. It “employed three pictures taken in the three primary colors by three lenses on the same film and projected through three objectives.” Dots, ruled lines or starch grains were used on the glass plates in the three colors. However, when enlarged, picture quality is diminished so although color is improved overall picture is not.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Bibliography==<br />
<br />
Billmeyer, Fred W., and Max Saltzman. Principles of Color Technology. Second Edition ed. New York: Wiley-Interscience, 1981. 25-66.<br />
<br />
Evans, Brian. "Foundations of a Visual Music." Computer Music Journal 29 (2005): 17-18.<br />
<br />
Gerritsen, Franz. Evolution in Color. Grand Rapids: Schiffer, Limited, 1988.<br />
<br />
Hirsch, Robert. Exploring Colour Photography: A Complete Guide. London: Laurence King, 2004.<br />
<br />
Hunt, R. W., and R. W. Hunt. Measuring Colour : A Photographer's Paradise. New York: Fountain P, Limited, 1996.<br />
<br />
Kindem, Gorham. "The Demise of Kinemacolor: Technological, Legal, Economic, and Aesthetic Problems in Early Color Cinema History." Cinema Journal 20 (1981): 3-14.<br />
<br />
Landa, Edward R. "Albert H. Munsell: A Sense of Color at the Interface of Art and Science." Soil Science 169 (2004): 83-89.<br />
<br />
Microsoft Computer Dictionary. New York: Microsoft P, 2002."The NCS System." The <br />
<br />
Natural Color System. Scandinavian Color Institute. <http://www.ncscolour.com/webbizz/mainpage/main.asp.><br />
<br />
Slosson, Edwin E. "How New Color Movie Camera Works." The Science News-letter 14 (1928): 61-62.</div>Torpillehttp://www.cultureandcommunication.org/deadmedia/index.php?title=Old_Color_Spaces&diff=6250Old Color Spaces2008-12-03T18:33:29Z<p>Torpille: /* The CIE Color Space */</p>
<hr />
<div>The color space is a graphic and numerical representation of colors and their relationship to one another. The purpose of the chart is to standardize and quantify what is frequently a subjective experience. Detailed color standards are commonly used in product development and design arenas; standards become outdated rapidly as new products are developed. Color spaces and standards assist in "express[ing] a given color [of an object] accurately, describ[ing] that color to another person, and hav[ing] that person correctly reproduce the color we perceive" (Konica Minolta 1). <br />
<br />
==COLOR BASICS==<br />
<br />
'''HSB or The “Three Dimensions” of Color'''<br />
<br />
(Gerritsen/Microsoft)<br />
<br />
HSB stands for Hue-Saturation-Brightness and is a color model dependent upon a color wheel and the percentage of the amount of white present in a designated hue. <br />
<br />
===Hue===<br />
<br />
Hue is color itself as it is placed on a color wheel where each color has a percentage. Red is at 0o, yellow is 60o, green is 120o, etc. This percentage coincides with the frequency of light waves reflected of any given object for that color in respects to the color spectrum. Each tone group (red, green, etc) can than be affected by saturation and brightness in order to vary its shade and intensity. <br />
<br />
===Saturation===<br />
<br />
Often given as a percentage, saturation is the intensity of color for a specific hue. It can also be described as how different a color is from grey at any lightness. Colors that are more vivid are considered more saturated while colors that are more muddled and closer to grey are less saturated. <br />
<br />
<br />
===Brightness===<br />
<br />
Brightness of an object is a difficult thing to measure because it is perceived. While looking at a computer screen in a dark room, colors appear brighter than if the room was well lit. But generally, brightness measures the luminosity of a color. <br />
<br />
<br />
===Additive Color Mixing===<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Image:additive.jpg|thumb|left|Additive Color Mixing]]<br />
Additive color systems, such as RGB, mix the three primary colors together as a way to produce more colors. The secondary colors of cyan, magenta and yellow are results of mixing two of the three primary colors together. White is created when all three of the primary colors are mixed together proportionately. The additive color theory was discovered by James Clerk Maxwell in conjunction with a photographer, Thomas Sutton. Maxwell had Sutton photograph a piece of ribbon three times, each with a different filter over the lens (one red, one blue, one green). He then projected each image from a different projector onto a common screen. The three separate images then formed a complete one with full coloring. <br />
<br />
<br />
===Subtractive Color Mixing===<br />
<br />
[[Image:subtractive.jpg|thumb|right|Subtractive Color Mixing]]<br />
Louis Ducos du Hauron was responsible for the discovery of the subtractive color theory. Subtractive color mixing removes some colors from white light while allowing others to pass. The CYMK model is an example of a subtractive color space. It uses cyan, yellow, magenta and black to create colors. When white light is passed through one of these secondary and subtractive color filters, two of the primary colors which form the secondary color are transmitted through the filter and the third one is absorbed. When equal amounts of all the subtractive colors overlap, all primary colors are blocked and black is produced. Subtractive color mixing is more advantageous than additive because of its ability to create more colors. When the proportion of overlapping filters is changed, almost any color can be created. Viewing equipment for subtractive coloring is also cheaper (Kirsch 28-35).<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
----<br />
<br />
==The Munsell System==<br />
===Brief Bio===<br />
Albert H. Munsell lived from 1858-1918 in Boston, MA. He attended Massachusetts Normal Art School (now Massachusetts College of Art), where he later became a member of the faculty. Although the color system he began developing is widely used by scientists and artists alike, Munsell did not consider himself a scientist. He was a trained painter frustrated with the lack of color descriptions and a systematic color scheme. Munsell began developing his color system when he was a teaching aid for color composition students. As the system became more advanced, Munsell was able to share his color distinction system with well-respected scientists and engineers around Boston. He published “A Color Notation” in 1905, which described his system so far. Munsell wanted his system to be used in a broad sense, rather than only in science and art. His goal was to use it to teach concepts of color to primary school students. Unfortunately, Munsell’s health began to decline in 1914 and he passed away in Boston in 1918 at the age of 60. After his death, Dorothy Nickerson (who first worked as secretary to Munsell’s son) worked to adapt the Munsell Color System. The charts could finally be put to widespread use 30 years after Munsell died. (Landa)<br />
===The System===<br />
The Munsell system is now the most widely used and accepted color system. All other color systems that arise are compared to the Munsell System, which has come to be known as the standard color system. The system builds on the guiding principle of equal visual perception. This is the idea that we all perceive colors differently, but the system accounts for any small discrepancies based on comparison to a grayscale, assuming the eyes seek the balance of grayscale (Evans). The system is able to describe all possible colors in terms of three coordinates:<br />
<br />
1. Munsell Hue: the quality of a color described at red, yellow, blue and so on<br />
<br />
2. Munsell Value: the place where a color falls in terms of lightness when compared to a scale of grays from white to black<br />
<br />
3. Munsell Chroma: the degree of difference between a color and a gray of the same value.<br />
<br />
The Munsell Book of Color is a compilation of color samples, usually arranged in pages of a book, or on a color “tree.” The Munsell Value is vertical in a display and the Munsell Chroma is horizontal. The scale of grays can be considered the “trunk” of the color tree, going from white on top to black on the bottom. <br />
<br />
<br />
[[image: Munsell_tree.jpg|thumb|center|200px|Munsell Tree]], [[image: Munsell_tree_pages.jpg|thumb|center|200px|Munsell Book]], [[image: Munsell_tree_round.jpg|thumb|center|200px|Munsell Tree]]<br />
<br />
Each sample has a Munsell Notation, which tells us its position on the tree. The notation consists of three symbols that represent Munsell Hue, Munsell Value, and Munsell Chroma. <br />
<br />
[[image: Munsell_notation.jpg|thumb|left|300px|An example of Munsell Notation]]<br />
<br />
The Munsell System is the most accepted color system because colors are not limited to the samples shown, whereas other color systems are. Any color that can be conceived will fit into the Munsell System. (Billmeyer and Saltzman)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Natural Color System & Color Opponency==<br />
<br />
===Color Opponency===<br />
<br />
[[Image:coloropponent.jpg|thumb|left|Color Opponency]]<br />
The Natural Color System is based upon the color opponent theory. The color opponent theory focuses on the uniqueness of four hues and their inability to be described simultaneously. R.W.G. Hunt describes color opponency:<br />
“The hues red, yellow, green and blue are said to be unique because they cannot be described in terms of any combinations of other color names. Thus, for instance, although orange can be described as a yellowish red or reddish yellow, red cannot be described as a yellowish blue or a bluish yellow. In fact the four unique hues comprise two pairs, red and green, and yellow and blue; the colors in each of these pairs are opponent, in the sense that they cannot both be perceived simultaneously as component parts of any one color. That is, it is impossible to have a reddish green, or a greenish red, or a yellowish blue, or a bluish yellow. But yellowish reds… greenish yellows… bluish reds are all possible (140-141).”<br />
Black and white are also used in the color opponent theory to determine variations of light and dark.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===NCS===<br />
<br />
[[Image:NCSNotation.jpg|thumb|right|NCS Notation]]<br />
The Natural Color System was developed by the Scandinavian Color Institute. Using NCS a color is measured based upon its percentage in comparison to a color opponent pair. A color therefore that is purely red and has no green is at 100% red. Darkness of a color and saturation are also taken into consideration when measuring the color being presented. A sample notation taken from the NCS website is shown to the right. The letter S in front simply means that the NCS is responsible for measuring a specific color.[[Image:NCSWheel.jpg|thumb|left|NCS Color Wheel]] The nuance describes the “degree of resemblance to whiteness and blackness.” Chromaticness puts the color at a grey. The ten percent blackness thus mean that there is 40 percent whiteness in the color. The Y90R describes the hue of the color. This example shows a yellowish color with 90 percent red. The ten percent yellow is than inferred (Hunt 141-143/The NCS System). <br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
----<br />
------<br />
<br />
==The CIE Color Spaces==<br />
<br />
[[Image:cielab.jpg|thumb|left|CIE Yxy]]<br />
In 1931, the Commission Internationale de l'Eclairage (CIE) devised the Yxy color space, and in 1976 created the L*a*b* to "provide more uniform color differences in relation to visual differences" (Konica Minolta 14). The CIE systems are used in conjunction with a colorimeter.[[Image:Yxy.jpg|thumb|right|Yxy]]<br />
===CIE Yxy===<br />
The Yxy color space is based on the three-component theory of color vision, which places red, green, and blue as the primary color receptors in the eye. All other colors are combinations of those three primary colors. Because lightness and darkness cannot be taken into consideration with RGB values, a third variable, Y lightness, makes up the Yxy system. Moving towards the center of the graph increases lightness; moving toward the edges increases chromaticity (another word for saturation). (Konica Minolta 16)<br />
===CIE L*a*b*===<br />
The CIE L*a*b* color space was invented because the original Yxy color space had a problem: "equal distances on the x, y chromaticity diagram did not correspond to equal perceived color differences" (Konica Minolta 18). L* indicates lightness and a* and b* are the hue coordinates. +a* is the red direction, -a is the green, +b is the yellow, and -b is the blue direction. In the center lies achromatism (grayness). (Konica Minolta 18)<br />
===Colorimeters===<br />
A colorimeter is the device that measures the color coordinates of an object. It is useful for avoiding '''metamerism''', a phenomenon in which two objects appear to be the same color under certain circumstances but under different circumstances are revealed to be different colors--for example, picking out two black socks in the morning and then realizing under fluorescent light that one is actually navy. Colorimeters can detect even minute differences in color and are commonly used in production so that the color of the product can be standardized. Companies determine how much tolerance--how much color variation is acceptable--in a product. The colorimeter is very fast, producing coordinates in less than a minute, and can be utilized on assembly lines. It features a built in light source so that the light remains uniform, data memory and display, and constant viewing and illumination angles. It eliminates area effect (when an object appears to be a different color due to size, paint chips vs. a painted wall for example) and contrast effect (when an object appears to be a different color when viewed with other objects). Colorimeters measure colors with three photocells calibrated to match the CIE 1931 standards, so that the observer is constant for all measurements. Essentially, with the colorimeter, almost all of the variables that make an object appear to be a different color--observer differences, light source differences, and angle differences--are eliminated. There are other types of colorimeters for the purpose of measuring objects of varying texture, including spectroradiometers, which measure emitted, transmitted, and reflected light; spectrophotometers, which measure reflected and transmitted light; glossmeters, which measure gloss; and goniospectrophotometers, which measure reflected color as function of angle. (Konica Minolta 26).<br />
<br />
==The CIE L*C*h* Color Space==<br />
[[Image:cielch.jpg|thumb|left|NCS Color Wheel]]<br />
<br />
==Common Color Spaces==<br />
A color space is a three-dimensional concept, in that it considers hue, value, and chroma. The most commonly used color spaces are hue based. These include RGB (red, green, blue), RYB (red, yellow, blue), and CMY (cyan, magenta, yellow). <br />
[[image: Color_circles.png|thumb|right|400px|]]<br />
The left circle was developed by Johannes Itten; it is a circle of the primary colors. The primary colors are still taught in art schools and classes today using this circle. The circle on the right is used today in computer graphics. The additive primary colors of this circle (red, green, and blue) produce white light when added together on a computer. The subtractive primaries (cyan, magenta, and yellow) are the complementary colors on the circle. When they’re added on the computer, they produce black, or the absence of color. When comparing the two circles, we can see that they contradict each other. The circle on the left suggests that red and green are complementary to each other, but in the circle on the right, they are both primary. This example shows that color can be subjective, “the perception of color is inexact, culturally influenced, and personal” (Evans).<br />
<br />
==Obsolete Color Space: RG & Early Film==<br />
<br />
Both Kinemacolor in England and Technicolor used red and green primary colors to produce images in film until blue was introduced as an easier means to produce a fuller image. Early motion pictures in England used this two -color process. Edwin Slosson describes the Kinemacolor system as “red and green being taken and projected alternately by means of a rotating disk of tinted filters. Because an image on the retina persists for about a sixteenth of a second before it fades away, each color fused with the succeeding one, except when movement was too fast (62).” <br />
<br />
Technicolor exposes two strips of black and white film to two different filters simultaneously. One was behind a red filter and the other a green. It had much the same problems as Kinemacolor because of the issue of speed. But since this was an additive method of color mixing, a subtractive method was tried. <br />
<br />
A successor the Gaumont Process used glass plates in an attempt to rectify the RG system. It “employed three pictures taken in the three primary colors by three lenses on the same film and projected through three objectives.” Dots, ruled lines or starch grains were used on the glass plates in the three colors. However, when enlarged, picture quality is diminished so although color is improved overall picture is not.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Bibliography==<br />
<br />
Billmeyer, Fred W., and Max Saltzman. Principles of Color Technology. Second Edition ed. New York: Wiley-Interscience, 1981. 25-66.<br />
<br />
Evans, Brian. "Foundations of a Visual Music." Computer Music Journal 29 (2005): 17-18.<br />
<br />
Gerritsen, Franz. Evolution in Color. Grand Rapids: Schiffer, Limited, 1988.<br />
<br />
Hirsch, Robert. Exploring Colour Photography: A Complete Guide. London: Laurence King, 2004.<br />
<br />
Hunt, R. W., and R. W. Hunt. Measuring Colour : A Photographer's Paradise. New York: Fountain P, Limited, 1996.<br />
<br />
Kindem, Gorham. "The Demise of Kinemacolor: Technological, Legal, Economic, and Aesthetic Problems in Early Color Cinema History." Cinema Journal 20 (1981): 3-14.<br />
<br />
Landa, Edward R. "Albert H. Munsell: A Sense of Color at the Interface of Art and Science." Soil Science 169 (2004): 83-89.<br />
<br />
Microsoft Computer Dictionary. New York: Microsoft P, 2002."The NCS System." The <br />
<br />
Natural Color System. Scandinavian Color Institute. <http://www.ncscolour.com/webbizz/mainpage/main.asp.><br />
<br />
Slosson, Edwin E. "How New Color Movie Camera Works." The Science News-letter 14 (1928): 61-62.</div>Torpillehttp://www.cultureandcommunication.org/deadmedia/index.php?title=File:Yxy.jpg&diff=6245File:Yxy.jpg2008-12-03T18:01:54Z<p>Torpille: YXY</p>
<hr />
<div>YXY</div>Torpillehttp://www.cultureandcommunication.org/deadmedia/index.php?title=Old_Color_Spaces&diff=6243Old Color Spaces2008-12-03T17:59:15Z<p>Torpille: /* NCS */</p>
<hr />
<div>The color space is a graphic and numerical representation of colors and their relationship to one another. The purpose of the chart is to standardize and quantify what is frequently a subjective experience. Detailed color standards are commonly used in product development and design arenas; standards become outdated rapidly as new products are developed. Color spaces and standards assist in "express[ing] a given color [of an object] accurately, describ[ing] that color to another person, and hav[ing] that person correctly reproduce the color we perceive" (Konica Minolta 1). <br />
<br />
==COLOR BASICS==<br />
<br />
'''HSB or The “Three Dimensions” of Color'''<br />
<br />
(Gerritsen/Microsoft)<br />
<br />
HSB stands for Hue-Saturation-Brightness and is a color model dependent upon a color wheel and the percentage of the amount of white present in a designated hue. <br />
<br />
===Hue===<br />
<br />
Hue is color itself as it is placed on a color wheel where each color has a percentage. Red is at 0o, yellow is 60o, green is 120o, etc. This percentage coincides with the frequency of light waves reflected of any given object for that color in respects to the color spectrum. Each tone group (red, green, etc) can than be affected by saturation and brightness in order to vary its shade and intensity. <br />
<br />
===Saturation===<br />
<br />
Often given as a percentage, saturation is the intensity of color for a specific hue. It can also be described as how different a color is from grey at any lightness. Colors that are more vivid are considered more saturated while colors that are more muddled and closer to grey are less saturated. <br />
<br />
<br />
===Brightness===<br />
<br />
Brightness of an object is a difficult thing to measure because it is perceived. While looking at a computer screen in a dark room, colors appear brighter than if the room was well lit. But generally, brightness measures the luminosity of a color. <br />
<br />
<br />
===Additive Color Mixing===<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Image:additive.jpg|thumb|left|Additive Color Mixing]]<br />
Additive color systems, such as RGB, mix the three primary colors together as a way to produce more colors. The secondary colors of cyan, magenta and yellow are results of mixing two of the three primary colors together. White is created when all three of the primary colors are mixed together proportionately. The additive color theory was discovered by James Clerk Maxwell in conjunction with a photographer, Thomas Sutton. Maxwell had Sutton photograph a piece of ribbon three times, each with a different filter over the lens (one red, one blue, one green). He then projected each image from a different projector onto a common screen. The three separate images then formed a complete one with full coloring. <br />
<br />
<br />
===Subtractive Color Mixing===<br />
<br />
[[Image:subtractive.jpg|thumb|right|Subtractive Color Mixing]]<br />
Louis Ducos du Hauron was responsible for the discovery of the subtractive color theory. Subtractive color mixing removes some colors from white light while allowing others to pass. The CYMK model is an example of a subtractive color space. It uses cyan, yellow, magenta and black to create colors. When white light is passed through one of these secondary and subtractive color filters, two of the primary colors which form the secondary color are transmitted through the filter and the third one is absorbed. When equal amounts of all the subtractive colors overlap, all primary colors are blocked and black is produced. Subtractive color mixing is more advantageous than additive because of its ability to create more colors. When the proportion of overlapping filters is changed, almost any color can be created. Viewing equipment for subtractive coloring is also cheaper (Kirsch 28-35).<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
----<br />
<br />
==The Munsell System==<br />
===Brief Bio===<br />
Albert H. Munsell lived from 1858-1918 in Boston, MA. He attended Massachusetts Normal Art School (now Massachusetts College of Art), where he later became a member of the faculty. Although the color system he began developing is widely used by scientists and artists alike, Munsell did not consider himself a scientist. He was a trained painter frustrated with the lack of color descriptions and a systematic color scheme. Munsell began developing his color system when he was a teaching aid for color composition students. As the system became more advanced, Munsell was able to share his color distinction system with well-respected scientists and engineers around Boston. He published “A Color Notation” in 1905, which described his system so far. Munsell wanted his system to be used in a broad sense, rather than only in science and art. His goal was to use it to teach concepts of color to primary school students. Unfortunately, Munsell’s health began to decline in 1914 and he passed away in Boston in 1918 at the age of 60. After his death, Dorothy Nickerson (who first worked as secretary to Munsell’s son) worked to adapt the Munsell Color System. The charts could finally be put to widespread use 30 years after Munsell died. (Landa)<br />
===The System===<br />
The Munsell system is now the most widely used and accepted color system. All other color systems that arise are compared to the Munsell System, which has come to be known as the standard color system. The system builds on the guiding principle of equal visual perception. This is the idea that we all perceive colors differently, but the system accounts for any small discrepancies based on comparison to a grayscale, assuming the eyes seek the balance of grayscale (Evans). The system is able to describe all possible colors in terms of three coordinates:<br />
<br />
1. Munsell Hue: the quality of a color described at red, yellow, blue and so on<br />
<br />
2. Munsell Value: the place where a color falls in terms of lightness when compared to a scale of grays from white to black<br />
<br />
3. Munsell Chroma: the degree of difference between a color and a gray of the same value.<br />
<br />
The Munsell Book of Color is a compilation of color samples, usually arranged in pages of a book, or on a color “tree.” The Munsell Value is vertical in a display and the Munsell Chroma is horizontal. The scale of grays can be considered the “trunk” of the color tree, going from white on top to black on the bottom. <br />
<br />
<br />
[[image: Munsell_tree.jpg|thumb|center|200px|Munsell Tree]], [[image: Munsell_tree_pages.jpg|thumb|center|200px|Munsell Book]], [[image: Munsell_tree_round.jpg|thumb|center|200px|Munsell Tree]]<br />
<br />
Each sample has a Munsell Notation, which tells us its position on the tree. The notation consists of three symbols that represent Munsell Hue, Munsell Value, and Munsell Chroma. <br />
<br />
[[image: Munsell_notation.jpg|thumb|left|300px|An example of Munsell Notation]]<br />
<br />
The Munsell System is the most accepted color system because colors are not limited to the samples shown, whereas other color systems are. Any color that can be conceived will fit into the Munsell System. (Billmeyer and Saltzman)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Natural Color System & Color Opponency==<br />
<br />
===Color Opponency===<br />
<br />
[[Image:coloropponent.jpg|thumb|left|Color Opponency]]<br />
The Natural Color System is based upon the color opponent theory. The color opponent theory focuses on the uniqueness of four hues and their inability to be described simultaneously. R.W.G. Hunt describes color opponency:<br />
“The hues red, yellow, green and blue are said to be unique because they cannot be described in terms of any combinations of other color names. Thus, for instance, although orange can be described as a yellowish red or reddish yellow, red cannot be described as a yellowish blue or a bluish yellow. In fact the four unique hues comprise two pairs, red and green, and yellow and blue; the colors in each of these pairs are opponent, in the sense that they cannot both be perceived simultaneously as component parts of any one color. That is, it is impossible to have a reddish green, or a greenish red, or a yellowish blue, or a bluish yellow. But yellowish reds… greenish yellows… bluish reds are all possible (140-141).”<br />
Black and white are also used in the color opponent theory to determine variations of light and dark.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===NCS===<br />
<br />
[[Image:NCSNotation.jpg|thumb|right|NCS Notation]]<br />
The Natural Color System was developed by the Scandinavian Color Institute. Using NCS a color is measured based upon its percentage in comparison to a color opponent pair. A color therefore that is purely red and has no green is at 100% red. Darkness of a color and saturation are also taken into consideration when measuring the color being presented. A sample notation taken from the NCS website is shown to the right. The letter S in front simply means that the NCS is responsible for measuring a specific color.[[Image:NCSWheel.jpg|thumb|left|NCS Color Wheel]] The nuance describes the “degree of resemblance to whiteness and blackness.” Chromaticness puts the color at a grey. The ten percent blackness thus mean that there is 40 percent whiteness in the color. The Y90R describes the hue of the color. This example shows a yellowish color with 90 percent red. The ten percent yellow is than inferred (Hunt 141-143/The NCS System). <br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
----<br />
------<br />
<br />
==The CIE Color Space==<br />
<br />
[[Image:cielab.jpg|thumb|left|CIE Yxy]]<br />
In 1931, the Commission Internationale de l'Eclairage (CIE) devised the Yxy color space, and in 1976 created the L*a*b* to "provide more uniform color differences in relation to visual differences" (Konica Minolta 14). The CIE systems are used in conjunction with a colorimeter.[[Image:Yxy.jpg|thumb|right|Yxy]]<br />
<br />
The Yxy color space is based on the three-component theory of color vision, which places red, green, and blue as the primary color receptors in the eye. All other colors are combinations of those three primary colors. Because lightness and darkness cannot be taken into consideration with RGB values, a third variable, Y lightness, makes up the Yxy system. Moving towards the center of the graph increases lightness; moving toward the edges increases chromaticity (another word for saturation).<br />
<br />
==The CIE L*C*h* Color Space==<br />
[[Image:cielch.jpg|thumb|left|NCS Color Wheel]]<br />
<br />
==Common Color Spaces==<br />
A color space is a three-dimensional concept, in that it considers hue, value, and chroma. The most commonly used color spaces are hue based. These include RGB (red, green, blue), RYB (red, yellow, blue), and CMY (cyan, magenta, yellow). <br />
[[image: Color_circles.png|thumb|right|400px|]]<br />
The left circle was developed by Johannes Itten; it is a circle of the primary colors. The primary colors are still taught in art schools and classes today using this circle. The circle on the right is used today in computer graphics. The additive primary colors of this circle (red, green, and blue) produce white light when added together on a computer. The subtractive primaries (cyan, magenta, and yellow) are the complementary colors on the circle. When they’re added on the computer, they produce black, or the absence of color. When comparing the two circles, we can see that they contradict each other. The circle on the left suggests that red and green are complementary to each other, but in the circle on the right, they are both primary. This example shows that color can be subjective, “the perception of color is inexact, culturally influenced, and personal” (Evans).<br />
<br />
==Obsolete Color Space: RG & Early Film==<br />
<br />
Both Kinemacolor in England and Technicolor used red and green primary colors to produce images in film until blue was introduced as an easier means to produce a fuller image. Early motion pictures in England used this two -color process. Edwin Slosson describes the Kinemacolor system as “red and green being taken and projected alternately by means of a rotating disk of tinted filters. Because an image on the retina persists for about a sixteenth of a second before it fades away, each color fused with the succeeding one, except when movement was too fast (62).” <br />
<br />
Technicolor exposes two strips of black and white film to two different filters simultaneously. One was behind a red filter and the other a green. It had much the same problems as Kinemacolor because of the issue of speed. But since this was an additive method of color mixing, a subtractive method was tried. <br />
<br />
A successor the Gaumont Process used glass plates in an attempt to rectify the RG system. It “employed three pictures taken in the three primary colors by three lenses on the same film and projected through three objectives.” Dots, ruled lines or starch grains were used on the glass plates in the three colors. However, when enlarged, picture quality is diminished so although color is improved overall picture is not.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Bibliography==<br />
<br />
Billmeyer, Fred W., and Max Saltzman. Principles of Color Technology. Second Edition ed. New York: Wiley-Interscience, 1981. 25-66.<br />
<br />
Evans, Brian. "Foundations of a Visual Music." Computer Music Journal 29 (2005): 17-18.<br />
<br />
Gerritsen, Franz. Evolution in Color. Grand Rapids: Schiffer, Limited, 1988.<br />
<br />
Hirsch, Robert. Exploring Colour Photography: A Complete Guide. London: Laurence King, 2004.<br />
<br />
Hunt, R. W., and R. W. Hunt. Measuring Colour : A Photographer's Paradise. New York: Fountain P, Limited, 1996.<br />
<br />
Kindem, Gorham. "The Demise of Kinemacolor: Technological, Legal, Economic, and Aesthetic Problems in Early Color Cinema History." Cinema Journal 20 (1981): 3-14.<br />
<br />
Landa, Edward R. "Albert H. Munsell: A Sense of Color at the Interface of Art and Science." Soil Science 169 (2004): 83-89.<br />
<br />
Microsoft Computer Dictionary. New York: Microsoft P, 2002."The NCS System." The <br />
<br />
Natural Color System. Scandinavian Color Institute. <http://www.ncscolour.com/webbizz/mainpage/main.asp.><br />
<br />
Slosson, Edwin E. "How New Color Movie Camera Works." The Science News-letter 14 (1928): 61-62.</div>Torpillehttp://www.cultureandcommunication.org/deadmedia/index.php?title=Old_Color_Spaces&diff=6241Old Color Spaces2008-12-03T17:58:48Z<p>Torpille: /* NCS */</p>
<hr />
<div>The color space is a graphic and numerical representation of colors and their relationship to one another. The purpose of the chart is to standardize and quantify what is frequently a subjective experience. Detailed color standards are commonly used in product development and design arenas; standards become outdated rapidly as new products are developed. Color spaces and standards assist in "express[ing] a given color [of an object] accurately, describ[ing] that color to another person, and hav[ing] that person correctly reproduce the color we perceive" (Konica Minolta 1). <br />
<br />
==COLOR BASICS==<br />
<br />
'''HSB or The “Three Dimensions” of Color'''<br />
<br />
(Gerritsen/Microsoft)<br />
<br />
HSB stands for Hue-Saturation-Brightness and is a color model dependent upon a color wheel and the percentage of the amount of white present in a designated hue. <br />
<br />
===Hue===<br />
<br />
Hue is color itself as it is placed on a color wheel where each color has a percentage. Red is at 0o, yellow is 60o, green is 120o, etc. This percentage coincides with the frequency of light waves reflected of any given object for that color in respects to the color spectrum. Each tone group (red, green, etc) can than be affected by saturation and brightness in order to vary its shade and intensity. <br />
<br />
===Saturation===<br />
<br />
Often given as a percentage, saturation is the intensity of color for a specific hue. It can also be described as how different a color is from grey at any lightness. Colors that are more vivid are considered more saturated while colors that are more muddled and closer to grey are less saturated. <br />
<br />
<br />
===Brightness===<br />
<br />
Brightness of an object is a difficult thing to measure because it is perceived. While looking at a computer screen in a dark room, colors appear brighter than if the room was well lit. But generally, brightness measures the luminosity of a color. <br />
<br />
<br />
===Additive Color Mixing===<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Image:additive.jpg|thumb|left|Additive Color Mixing]]<br />
Additive color systems, such as RGB, mix the three primary colors together as a way to produce more colors. The secondary colors of cyan, magenta and yellow are results of mixing two of the three primary colors together. White is created when all three of the primary colors are mixed together proportionately. The additive color theory was discovered by James Clerk Maxwell in conjunction with a photographer, Thomas Sutton. Maxwell had Sutton photograph a piece of ribbon three times, each with a different filter over the lens (one red, one blue, one green). He then projected each image from a different projector onto a common screen. The three separate images then formed a complete one with full coloring. <br />
<br />
<br />
===Subtractive Color Mixing===<br />
<br />
[[Image:subtractive.jpg|thumb|right|Subtractive Color Mixing]]<br />
Louis Ducos du Hauron was responsible for the discovery of the subtractive color theory. Subtractive color mixing removes some colors from white light while allowing others to pass. The CYMK model is an example of a subtractive color space. It uses cyan, yellow, magenta and black to create colors. When white light is passed through one of these secondary and subtractive color filters, two of the primary colors which form the secondary color are transmitted through the filter and the third one is absorbed. When equal amounts of all the subtractive colors overlap, all primary colors are blocked and black is produced. Subtractive color mixing is more advantageous than additive because of its ability to create more colors. When the proportion of overlapping filters is changed, almost any color can be created. Viewing equipment for subtractive coloring is also cheaper (Kirsch 28-35).<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
----<br />
<br />
==The Munsell System==<br />
===Brief Bio===<br />
Albert H. Munsell lived from 1858-1918 in Boston, MA. He attended Massachusetts Normal Art School (now Massachusetts College of Art), where he later became a member of the faculty. Although the color system he began developing is widely used by scientists and artists alike, Munsell did not consider himself a scientist. He was a trained painter frustrated with the lack of color descriptions and a systematic color scheme. Munsell began developing his color system when he was a teaching aid for color composition students. As the system became more advanced, Munsell was able to share his color distinction system with well-respected scientists and engineers around Boston. He published “A Color Notation” in 1905, which described his system so far. Munsell wanted his system to be used in a broad sense, rather than only in science and art. His goal was to use it to teach concepts of color to primary school students. Unfortunately, Munsell’s health began to decline in 1914 and he passed away in Boston in 1918 at the age of 60. After his death, Dorothy Nickerson (who first worked as secretary to Munsell’s son) worked to adapt the Munsell Color System. The charts could finally be put to widespread use 30 years after Munsell died. (Landa)<br />
===The System===<br />
The Munsell system is now the most widely used and accepted color system. All other color systems that arise are compared to the Munsell System, which has come to be known as the standard color system. The system builds on the guiding principle of equal visual perception. This is the idea that we all perceive colors differently, but the system accounts for any small discrepancies based on comparison to a grayscale, assuming the eyes seek the balance of grayscale (Evans). The system is able to describe all possible colors in terms of three coordinates:<br />
<br />
1. Munsell Hue: the quality of a color described at red, yellow, blue and so on<br />
<br />
2. Munsell Value: the place where a color falls in terms of lightness when compared to a scale of grays from white to black<br />
<br />
3. Munsell Chroma: the degree of difference between a color and a gray of the same value.<br />
<br />
The Munsell Book of Color is a compilation of color samples, usually arranged in pages of a book, or on a color “tree.” The Munsell Value is vertical in a display and the Munsell Chroma is horizontal. The scale of grays can be considered the “trunk” of the color tree, going from white on top to black on the bottom. <br />
<br />
<br />
[[image: Munsell_tree.jpg|thumb|center|200px|Munsell Tree]], [[image: Munsell_tree_pages.jpg|thumb|center|200px|Munsell Book]], [[image: Munsell_tree_round.jpg|thumb|center|200px|Munsell Tree]]<br />
<br />
Each sample has a Munsell Notation, which tells us its position on the tree. The notation consists of three symbols that represent Munsell Hue, Munsell Value, and Munsell Chroma. <br />
<br />
[[image: Munsell_notation.jpg|thumb|left|300px|An example of Munsell Notation]]<br />
<br />
The Munsell System is the most accepted color system because colors are not limited to the samples shown, whereas other color systems are. Any color that can be conceived will fit into the Munsell System. (Billmeyer and Saltzman)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Natural Color System & Color Opponency==<br />
<br />
===Color Opponency===<br />
<br />
[[Image:coloropponent.jpg|thumb|left|Color Opponency]]<br />
The Natural Color System is based upon the color opponent theory. The color opponent theory focuses on the uniqueness of four hues and their inability to be described simultaneously. R.W.G. Hunt describes color opponency:<br />
“The hues red, yellow, green and blue are said to be unique because they cannot be described in terms of any combinations of other color names. Thus, for instance, although orange can be described as a yellowish red or reddish yellow, red cannot be described as a yellowish blue or a bluish yellow. In fact the four unique hues comprise two pairs, red and green, and yellow and blue; the colors in each of these pairs are opponent, in the sense that they cannot both be perceived simultaneously as component parts of any one color. That is, it is impossible to have a reddish green, or a greenish red, or a yellowish blue, or a bluish yellow. But yellowish reds… greenish yellows… bluish reds are all possible (140-141).”<br />
Black and white are also used in the color opponent theory to determine variations of light and dark.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===NCS===<br />
<br />
[[Image:NCSNotation.jpg|thumb|right|NCS Notation]]<br />
The Natural Color System was developed by the Scandinavian Color Institute. Using NCS a color is measured based upon its percentage in comparison to a color opponent pair. A color therefore that is purely red and has no green is at 100% red. Darkness of a color and saturation are also taken into consideration when measuring the color being presented. A sample notation taken from the NCS website is shown to the right. The letter S in front simply means that the NCS is responsible for measuring a specific color. The nuance describes the “degree of resemblance to whiteness and blackness.” Chromaticness puts the color at a grey. The ten percent blackness thus mean that there is 40 percent whiteness in the color. The Y90R describes the hue of the color. This example shows a yellowish color with 90 percent red. The ten percent yellow is than inferred (Hunt 141-143/The NCS System). <br />
<br />
[[Image:NCSWheel.jpg|thumb|left|NCS Color Wheel]]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
----<br />
------<br />
<br />
==The CIE Color Space==<br />
<br />
[[Image:cielab.jpg|thumb|left|CIE Yxy]]<br />
In 1931, the Commission Internationale de l'Eclairage (CIE) devised the Yxy color space, and in 1976 created the L*a*b* to "provide more uniform color differences in relation to visual differences" (Konica Minolta 14). The CIE systems are used in conjunction with a colorimeter.[[Image:Yxy.jpg|thumb|right|Yxy]]<br />
<br />
The Yxy color space is based on the three-component theory of color vision, which places red, green, and blue as the primary color receptors in the eye. All other colors are combinations of those three primary colors. Because lightness and darkness cannot be taken into consideration with RGB values, a third variable, Y lightness, makes up the Yxy system. Moving towards the center of the graph increases lightness; moving toward the edges increases chromaticity (another word for saturation).<br />
<br />
==The CIE L*C*h* Color Space==<br />
[[Image:cielch.jpg|thumb|left|NCS Color Wheel]]<br />
<br />
==Common Color Spaces==<br />
A color space is a three-dimensional concept, in that it considers hue, value, and chroma. The most commonly used color spaces are hue based. These include RGB (red, green, blue), RYB (red, yellow, blue), and CMY (cyan, magenta, yellow). <br />
[[image: Color_circles.png|thumb|right|400px|]]<br />
The left circle was developed by Johannes Itten; it is a circle of the primary colors. The primary colors are still taught in art schools and classes today using this circle. The circle on the right is used today in computer graphics. The additive primary colors of this circle (red, green, and blue) produce white light when added together on a computer. The subtractive primaries (cyan, magenta, and yellow) are the complementary colors on the circle. When they’re added on the computer, they produce black, or the absence of color. When comparing the two circles, we can see that they contradict each other. The circle on the left suggests that red and green are complementary to each other, but in the circle on the right, they are both primary. This example shows that color can be subjective, “the perception of color is inexact, culturally influenced, and personal” (Evans).<br />
<br />
==Obsolete Color Space: RG & Early Film==<br />
<br />
Both Kinemacolor in England and Technicolor used red and green primary colors to produce images in film until blue was introduced as an easier means to produce a fuller image. Early motion pictures in England used this two -color process. Edwin Slosson describes the Kinemacolor system as “red and green being taken and projected alternately by means of a rotating disk of tinted filters. Because an image on the retina persists for about a sixteenth of a second before it fades away, each color fused with the succeeding one, except when movement was too fast (62).” <br />
<br />
Technicolor exposes two strips of black and white film to two different filters simultaneously. One was behind a red filter and the other a green. It had much the same problems as Kinemacolor because of the issue of speed. But since this was an additive method of color mixing, a subtractive method was tried. <br />
<br />
A successor the Gaumont Process used glass plates in an attempt to rectify the RG system. It “employed three pictures taken in the three primary colors by three lenses on the same film and projected through three objectives.” Dots, ruled lines or starch grains were used on the glass plates in the three colors. However, when enlarged, picture quality is diminished so although color is improved overall picture is not.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Bibliography==<br />
<br />
Billmeyer, Fred W., and Max Saltzman. Principles of Color Technology. Second Edition ed. New York: Wiley-Interscience, 1981. 25-66.<br />
<br />
Evans, Brian. "Foundations of a Visual Music." Computer Music Journal 29 (2005): 17-18.<br />
<br />
Gerritsen, Franz. Evolution in Color. Grand Rapids: Schiffer, Limited, 1988.<br />
<br />
Hirsch, Robert. Exploring Colour Photography: A Complete Guide. London: Laurence King, 2004.<br />
<br />
Hunt, R. W., and R. W. Hunt. Measuring Colour : A Photographer's Paradise. New York: Fountain P, Limited, 1996.<br />
<br />
Kindem, Gorham. "The Demise of Kinemacolor: Technological, Legal, Economic, and Aesthetic Problems in Early Color Cinema History." Cinema Journal 20 (1981): 3-14.<br />
<br />
Landa, Edward R. "Albert H. Munsell: A Sense of Color at the Interface of Art and Science." Soil Science 169 (2004): 83-89.<br />
<br />
Microsoft Computer Dictionary. New York: Microsoft P, 2002."The NCS System." The <br />
<br />
Natural Color System. Scandinavian Color Institute. <http://www.ncscolour.com/webbizz/mainpage/main.asp.><br />
<br />
Slosson, Edwin E. "How New Color Movie Camera Works." The Science News-letter 14 (1928): 61-62.</div>Torpillehttp://www.cultureandcommunication.org/deadmedia/index.php?title=Old_Color_Spaces&diff=6240Old Color Spaces2008-12-03T17:58:11Z<p>Torpille: /* The CIE Color Space */</p>
<hr />
<div>The color space is a graphic and numerical representation of colors and their relationship to one another. The purpose of the chart is to standardize and quantify what is frequently a subjective experience. Detailed color standards are commonly used in product development and design arenas; standards become outdated rapidly as new products are developed. Color spaces and standards assist in "express[ing] a given color [of an object] accurately, describ[ing] that color to another person, and hav[ing] that person correctly reproduce the color we perceive" (Konica Minolta 1). <br />
<br />
==COLOR BASICS==<br />
<br />
'''HSB or The “Three Dimensions” of Color'''<br />
<br />
(Gerritsen/Microsoft)<br />
<br />
HSB stands for Hue-Saturation-Brightness and is a color model dependent upon a color wheel and the percentage of the amount of white present in a designated hue. <br />
<br />
===Hue===<br />
<br />
Hue is color itself as it is placed on a color wheel where each color has a percentage. Red is at 0o, yellow is 60o, green is 120o, etc. This percentage coincides with the frequency of light waves reflected of any given object for that color in respects to the color spectrum. Each tone group (red, green, etc) can than be affected by saturation and brightness in order to vary its shade and intensity. <br />
<br />
===Saturation===<br />
<br />
Often given as a percentage, saturation is the intensity of color for a specific hue. It can also be described as how different a color is from grey at any lightness. Colors that are more vivid are considered more saturated while colors that are more muddled and closer to grey are less saturated. <br />
<br />
<br />
===Brightness===<br />
<br />
Brightness of an object is a difficult thing to measure because it is perceived. While looking at a computer screen in a dark room, colors appear brighter than if the room was well lit. But generally, brightness measures the luminosity of a color. <br />
<br />
<br />
===Additive Color Mixing===<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Image:additive.jpg|thumb|left|Additive Color Mixing]]<br />
Additive color systems, such as RGB, mix the three primary colors together as a way to produce more colors. The secondary colors of cyan, magenta and yellow are results of mixing two of the three primary colors together. White is created when all three of the primary colors are mixed together proportionately. The additive color theory was discovered by James Clerk Maxwell in conjunction with a photographer, Thomas Sutton. Maxwell had Sutton photograph a piece of ribbon three times, each with a different filter over the lens (one red, one blue, one green). He then projected each image from a different projector onto a common screen. The three separate images then formed a complete one with full coloring. <br />
<br />
<br />
===Subtractive Color Mixing===<br />
<br />
[[Image:subtractive.jpg|thumb|right|Subtractive Color Mixing]]<br />
Louis Ducos du Hauron was responsible for the discovery of the subtractive color theory. Subtractive color mixing removes some colors from white light while allowing others to pass. The CYMK model is an example of a subtractive color space. It uses cyan, yellow, magenta and black to create colors. When white light is passed through one of these secondary and subtractive color filters, two of the primary colors which form the secondary color are transmitted through the filter and the third one is absorbed. When equal amounts of all the subtractive colors overlap, all primary colors are blocked and black is produced. Subtractive color mixing is more advantageous than additive because of its ability to create more colors. When the proportion of overlapping filters is changed, almost any color can be created. Viewing equipment for subtractive coloring is also cheaper (Kirsch 28-35).<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
----<br />
<br />
==The Munsell System==<br />
===Brief Bio===<br />
Albert H. Munsell lived from 1858-1918 in Boston, MA. He attended Massachusetts Normal Art School (now Massachusetts College of Art), where he later became a member of the faculty. Although the color system he began developing is widely used by scientists and artists alike, Munsell did not consider himself a scientist. He was a trained painter frustrated with the lack of color descriptions and a systematic color scheme. Munsell began developing his color system when he was a teaching aid for color composition students. As the system became more advanced, Munsell was able to share his color distinction system with well-respected scientists and engineers around Boston. He published “A Color Notation” in 1905, which described his system so far. Munsell wanted his system to be used in a broad sense, rather than only in science and art. His goal was to use it to teach concepts of color to primary school students. Unfortunately, Munsell’s health began to decline in 1914 and he passed away in Boston in 1918 at the age of 60. After his death, Dorothy Nickerson (who first worked as secretary to Munsell’s son) worked to adapt the Munsell Color System. The charts could finally be put to widespread use 30 years after Munsell died. (Landa)<br />
===The System===<br />
The Munsell system is now the most widely used and accepted color system. All other color systems that arise are compared to the Munsell System, which has come to be known as the standard color system. The system builds on the guiding principle of equal visual perception. This is the idea that we all perceive colors differently, but the system accounts for any small discrepancies based on comparison to a grayscale, assuming the eyes seek the balance of grayscale (Evans). The system is able to describe all possible colors in terms of three coordinates:<br />
<br />
1. Munsell Hue: the quality of a color described at red, yellow, blue and so on<br />
<br />
2. Munsell Value: the place where a color falls in terms of lightness when compared to a scale of grays from white to black<br />
<br />
3. Munsell Chroma: the degree of difference between a color and a gray of the same value.<br />
<br />
The Munsell Book of Color is a compilation of color samples, usually arranged in pages of a book, or on a color “tree.” The Munsell Value is vertical in a display and the Munsell Chroma is horizontal. The scale of grays can be considered the “trunk” of the color tree, going from white on top to black on the bottom. <br />
<br />
<br />
[[image: Munsell_tree.jpg|thumb|center|200px|Munsell Tree]], [[image: Munsell_tree_pages.jpg|thumb|center|200px|Munsell Book]], [[image: Munsell_tree_round.jpg|thumb|center|200px|Munsell Tree]]<br />
<br />
Each sample has a Munsell Notation, which tells us its position on the tree. The notation consists of three symbols that represent Munsell Hue, Munsell Value, and Munsell Chroma. <br />
<br />
[[image: Munsell_notation.jpg|thumb|left|300px|An example of Munsell Notation]]<br />
<br />
The Munsell System is the most accepted color system because colors are not limited to the samples shown, whereas other color systems are. Any color that can be conceived will fit into the Munsell System. (Billmeyer and Saltzman)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Natural Color System & Color Opponency==<br />
<br />
===Color Opponency===<br />
<br />
[[Image:coloropponent.jpg|thumb|left|Color Opponency]]<br />
The Natural Color System is based upon the color opponent theory. The color opponent theory focuses on the uniqueness of four hues and their inability to be described simultaneously. R.W.G. Hunt describes color opponency:<br />
“The hues red, yellow, green and blue are said to be unique because they cannot be described in terms of any combinations of other color names. Thus, for instance, although orange can be described as a yellowish red or reddish yellow, red cannot be described as a yellowish blue or a bluish yellow. In fact the four unique hues comprise two pairs, red and green, and yellow and blue; the colors in each of these pairs are opponent, in the sense that they cannot both be perceived simultaneously as component parts of any one color. That is, it is impossible to have a reddish green, or a greenish red, or a yellowish blue, or a bluish yellow. But yellowish reds… greenish yellows… bluish reds are all possible (140-141).”<br />
Black and white are also used in the color opponent theory to determine variations of light and dark.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===NCS===<br />
<br />
[[Image:NCSNotation.jpg|thumb|right|NCS Notation]]<br />
The Natural Color System was developed by the Scandinavian Color Institute. Using NCS a color is measured based upon its percentage in comparison to a color opponent pair. A color therefore that is purely red and has no green is at 100% red. Darkness of a color and saturation are also taken into consideration when measuring the color being presented. A sample notation taken from the NCS website is shown to the right. The letter S in front simply means that the NCS is responsible for measuring a specific color. The nuance describes the “degree of resemblance to whiteness and blackness.” Chromaticness puts the color at a grey. The ten percent blackness thus mean that there is 40 percent whiteness in the color. The Y90R describes the hue of the color. This example shows a yellowish color with 90 percent red. The ten percent yellow is than inferred (Hunt 141-143/The NCS System). <br />
<br />
[[Image:NCSWheel.jpg|thumb|left|NCS Color Wheel]]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
----<br />
------<br />
<br />
==The CIE Color Space==<br />
<br />
[[Image:cielab.jpg|thumb|left|CIE Yxy]]<br />
In 1931, the Commission Internationale de l'Eclairage (CIE) devised the Yxy color space, and in 1976 created the L*a*b* to "provide more uniform color differences in relation to visual differences" (Konica Minolta 14). The CIE systems are used in conjunction with a colorimeter.[[Image:Yxy.jpg|thumb|right|Yxy]]<br />
<br />
The Yxy color space is based on the three-component theory of color vision, which places red, green, and blue as the primary color receptors in the eye. All other colors are combinations of those three primary colors. Because lightness and darkness cannot be taken into consideration with RGB values, a third variable, Y lightness, makes up the Yxy system. Moving towards the center of the graph increases lightness; moving toward the edges increases chromaticity (another word for saturation).<br />
<br />
==The CIE L*C*h* Color Space==<br />
[[Image:cielch.jpg|thumb|left|NCS Color Wheel]]<br />
<br />
==Common Color Spaces==<br />
A color space is a three-dimensional concept, in that it considers hue, value, and chroma. The most commonly used color spaces are hue based. These include RGB (red, green, blue), RYB (red, yellow, blue), and CMY (cyan, magenta, yellow). <br />
[[image: Color_circles.png|thumb|right|400px|]]<br />
The left circle was developed by Johannes Itten; it is a circle of the primary colors. The primary colors are still taught in art schools and classes today using this circle. The circle on the right is used today in computer graphics. The additive primary colors of this circle (red, green, and blue) produce white light when added together on a computer. The subtractive primaries (cyan, magenta, and yellow) are the complementary colors on the circle. When they’re added on the computer, they produce black, or the absence of color. When comparing the two circles, we can see that they contradict each other. The circle on the left suggests that red and green are complementary to each other, but in the circle on the right, they are both primary. This example shows that color can be subjective, “the perception of color is inexact, culturally influenced, and personal” (Evans).<br />
<br />
==Obsolete Color Space: RG & Early Film==<br />
<br />
Both Kinemacolor in England and Technicolor used red and green primary colors to produce images in film until blue was introduced as an easier means to produce a fuller image. Early motion pictures in England used this two -color process. Edwin Slosson describes the Kinemacolor system as “red and green being taken and projected alternately by means of a rotating disk of tinted filters. Because an image on the retina persists for about a sixteenth of a second before it fades away, each color fused with the succeeding one, except when movement was too fast (62).” <br />
<br />
Technicolor exposes two strips of black and white film to two different filters simultaneously. One was behind a red filter and the other a green. It had much the same problems as Kinemacolor because of the issue of speed. But since this was an additive method of color mixing, a subtractive method was tried. <br />
<br />
A successor the Gaumont Process used glass plates in an attempt to rectify the RG system. It “employed three pictures taken in the three primary colors by three lenses on the same film and projected through three objectives.” Dots, ruled lines or starch grains were used on the glass plates in the three colors. However, when enlarged, picture quality is diminished so although color is improved overall picture is not.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Bibliography==<br />
<br />
Billmeyer, Fred W., and Max Saltzman. Principles of Color Technology. Second Edition ed. New York: Wiley-Interscience, 1981. 25-66.<br />
<br />
Evans, Brian. "Foundations of a Visual Music." Computer Music Journal 29 (2005): 17-18.<br />
<br />
Gerritsen, Franz. Evolution in Color. Grand Rapids: Schiffer, Limited, 1988.<br />
<br />
Hirsch, Robert. Exploring Colour Photography: A Complete Guide. London: Laurence King, 2004.<br />
<br />
Hunt, R. W., and R. W. Hunt. Measuring Colour : A Photographer's Paradise. New York: Fountain P, Limited, 1996.<br />
<br />
Kindem, Gorham. "The Demise of Kinemacolor: Technological, Legal, Economic, and Aesthetic Problems in Early Color Cinema History." Cinema Journal 20 (1981): 3-14.<br />
<br />
Landa, Edward R. "Albert H. Munsell: A Sense of Color at the Interface of Art and Science." Soil Science 169 (2004): 83-89.<br />
<br />
Microsoft Computer Dictionary. New York: Microsoft P, 2002."The NCS System." The <br />
<br />
Natural Color System. Scandinavian Color Institute. <http://www.ncscolour.com/webbizz/mainpage/main.asp.><br />
<br />
Slosson, Edwin E. "How New Color Movie Camera Works." The Science News-letter 14 (1928): 61-62.</div>Torpillehttp://www.cultureandcommunication.org/deadmedia/index.php?title=File:Cielab.jpg&diff=6238File:Cielab.jpg2008-12-03T17:57:09Z<p>Torpille: The CIE L*a*b* system</p>
<hr />
<div>The CIE L*a*b* system</div>Torpillehttp://www.cultureandcommunication.org/deadmedia/index.php?title=Old_Color_Spaces&diff=6237Old Color Spaces2008-12-03T17:56:03Z<p>Torpille: /* The CIE Color Space */</p>
<hr />
<div>The color space is a graphic and numerical representation of colors and their relationship to one another. The purpose of the chart is to standardize and quantify what is frequently a subjective experience. Detailed color standards are commonly used in product development and design arenas; standards become outdated rapidly as new products are developed. Color spaces and standards assist in "express[ing] a given color [of an object] accurately, describ[ing] that color to another person, and hav[ing] that person correctly reproduce the color we perceive" (Konica Minolta 1). <br />
<br />
==COLOR BASICS==<br />
<br />
'''HSB or The “Three Dimensions” of Color'''<br />
<br />
(Gerritsen/Microsoft)<br />
<br />
HSB stands for Hue-Saturation-Brightness and is a color model dependent upon a color wheel and the percentage of the amount of white present in a designated hue. <br />
<br />
===Hue===<br />
<br />
Hue is color itself as it is placed on a color wheel where each color has a percentage. Red is at 0o, yellow is 60o, green is 120o, etc. This percentage coincides with the frequency of light waves reflected of any given object for that color in respects to the color spectrum. Each tone group (red, green, etc) can than be affected by saturation and brightness in order to vary its shade and intensity. <br />
<br />
===Saturation===<br />
<br />
Often given as a percentage, saturation is the intensity of color for a specific hue. It can also be described as how different a color is from grey at any lightness. Colors that are more vivid are considered more saturated while colors that are more muddled and closer to grey are less saturated. <br />
<br />
<br />
===Brightness===<br />
<br />
Brightness of an object is a difficult thing to measure because it is perceived. While looking at a computer screen in a dark room, colors appear brighter than if the room was well lit. But generally, brightness measures the luminosity of a color. <br />
<br />
<br />
===Additive Color Mixing===<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Image:additive.jpg|thumb|left|Additive Color Mixing]]<br />
Additive color systems, such as RGB, mix the three primary colors together as a way to produce more colors. The secondary colors of cyan, magenta and yellow are results of mixing two of the three primary colors together. White is created when all three of the primary colors are mixed together proportionately. The additive color theory was discovered by James Clerk Maxwell in conjunction with a photographer, Thomas Sutton. Maxwell had Sutton photograph a piece of ribbon three times, each with a different filter over the lens (one red, one blue, one green). He then projected each image from a different projector onto a common screen. The three separate images then formed a complete one with full coloring. <br />
<br />
<br />
===Subtractive Color Mixing===<br />
<br />
[[Image:subtractive.jpg|thumb|right|Subtractive Color Mixing]]<br />
Louis Ducos du Hauron was responsible for the discovery of the subtractive color theory. Subtractive color mixing removes some colors from white light while allowing others to pass. The CYMK model is an example of a subtractive color space. It uses cyan, yellow, magenta and black to create colors. When white light is passed through one of these secondary and subtractive color filters, two of the primary colors which form the secondary color are transmitted through the filter and the third one is absorbed. When equal amounts of all the subtractive colors overlap, all primary colors are blocked and black is produced. Subtractive color mixing is more advantageous than additive because of its ability to create more colors. When the proportion of overlapping filters is changed, almost any color can be created. Viewing equipment for subtractive coloring is also cheaper (Kirsch 28-35).<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
----<br />
<br />
==The Munsell System==<br />
===Brief Bio===<br />
Albert H. Munsell lived from 1858-1918 in Boston, MA. He attended Massachusetts Normal Art School (now Massachusetts College of Art), where he later became a member of the faculty. Although the color system he began developing is widely used by scientists and artists alike, Munsell did not consider himself a scientist. He was a trained painter frustrated with the lack of color descriptions and a systematic color scheme. Munsell began developing his color system when he was a teaching aid for color composition students. As the system became more advanced, Munsell was able to share his color distinction system with well-respected scientists and engineers around Boston. He published “A Color Notation” in 1905, which described his system so far. Munsell wanted his system to be used in a broad sense, rather than only in science and art. His goal was to use it to teach concepts of color to primary school students. Unfortunately, Munsell’s health began to decline in 1914 and he passed away in Boston in 1918 at the age of 60. After his death, Dorothy Nickerson (who first worked as secretary to Munsell’s son) worked to adapt the Munsell Color System. The charts could finally be put to widespread use 30 years after Munsell died. (Landa)<br />
===The System===<br />
The Munsell system is now the most widely used and accepted color system. All other color systems that arise are compared to the Munsell System, which has come to be known as the standard color system. The system builds on the guiding principle of equal visual perception. This is the idea that we all perceive colors differently, but the system accounts for any small discrepancies based on comparison to a grayscale, assuming the eyes seek the balance of grayscale (Evans). The system is able to describe all possible colors in terms of three coordinates:<br />
<br />
1. Munsell Hue: the quality of a color described at red, yellow, blue and so on<br />
<br />
2. Munsell Value: the place where a color falls in terms of lightness when compared to a scale of grays from white to black<br />
<br />
3. Munsell Chroma: the degree of difference between a color and a gray of the same value.<br />
<br />
The Munsell Book of Color is a compilation of color samples, usually arranged in pages of a book, or on a color “tree.” The Munsell Value is vertical in a display and the Munsell Chroma is horizontal. The scale of grays can be considered the “trunk” of the color tree, going from white on top to black on the bottom. <br />
<br />
<br />
[[image: Munsell_tree.jpg|thumb|center|200px|Munsell Tree]], [[image: Munsell_tree_pages.jpg|thumb|center|200px|Munsell Book]], [[image: Munsell_tree_round.jpg|thumb|center|200px|Munsell Tree]]<br />
<br />
Each sample has a Munsell Notation, which tells us its position on the tree. The notation consists of three symbols that represent Munsell Hue, Munsell Value, and Munsell Chroma. <br />
<br />
[[image: Munsell_notation.jpg|thumb|left|300px|An example of Munsell Notation]]<br />
<br />
The Munsell System is the most accepted color system because colors are not limited to the samples shown, whereas other color systems are. Any color that can be conceived will fit into the Munsell System. (Billmeyer and Saltzman)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Natural Color System & Color Opponency==<br />
<br />
===Color Opponency===<br />
<br />
[[Image:coloropponent.jpg|thumb|left|Color Opponency]]<br />
The Natural Color System is based upon the color opponent theory. The color opponent theory focuses on the uniqueness of four hues and their inability to be described simultaneously. R.W.G. Hunt describes color opponency:<br />
“The hues red, yellow, green and blue are said to be unique because they cannot be described in terms of any combinations of other color names. Thus, for instance, although orange can be described as a yellowish red or reddish yellow, red cannot be described as a yellowish blue or a bluish yellow. In fact the four unique hues comprise two pairs, red and green, and yellow and blue; the colors in each of these pairs are opponent, in the sense that they cannot both be perceived simultaneously as component parts of any one color. That is, it is impossible to have a reddish green, or a greenish red, or a yellowish blue, or a bluish yellow. But yellowish reds… greenish yellows… bluish reds are all possible (140-141).”<br />
Black and white are also used in the color opponent theory to determine variations of light and dark.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===NCS===<br />
<br />
[[Image:NCSNotation.jpg|thumb|right|NCS Notation]]<br />
The Natural Color System was developed by the Scandinavian Color Institute. Using NCS a color is measured based upon its percentage in comparison to a color opponent pair. A color therefore that is purely red and has no green is at 100% red. Darkness of a color and saturation are also taken into consideration when measuring the color being presented. A sample notation taken from the NCS website is shown to the right. The letter S in front simply means that the NCS is responsible for measuring a specific color. The nuance describes the “degree of resemblance to whiteness and blackness.” Chromaticness puts the color at a grey. The ten percent blackness thus mean that there is 40 percent whiteness in the color. The Y90R describes the hue of the color. This example shows a yellowish color with 90 percent red. The ten percent yellow is than inferred (Hunt 141-143/The NCS System). <br />
<br />
[[Image:NCSWheel.jpg|thumb|left|NCS Color Wheel]]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
----<br />
------<br />
<br />
==The CIE Color Space==<br />
<br />
[[Image:cielab.jpg|thumb|left|CIE Lab]]<br />
In 1931, the Commission Internationale de l'Eclairage (CIE) devised the Yxy color space, and in 1976 created the L*a*b* to "provide more uniform color differences in relation to visual differences" (Konica Minolta 14). The CIE systems are used in conjunction with a colorimeter.[[Image:Yxy.jpg|thumb|left|Yxy]]<br />
<br />
The Yxy color space is based on the three-component theory of color vision, which places red, green, and blue as the primary color receptors in the eye. All other colors are combinations of those three primary colors. Because lightness and darkness cannot be taken into consideration with RGB values, a third variable, Y lightness, makes up the Yxy system. Moving towards the center of the graph increases lightness; moving toward the edges increases chromaticity (another word for saturation).<br />
<br />
==The CIE L*C*h* Color Space==<br />
[[Image:cielch.jpg|thumb|left|NCS Color Wheel]]<br />
<br />
==Common Color Spaces==<br />
A color space is a three-dimensional concept, in that it considers hue, value, and chroma. The most commonly used color spaces are hue based. These include RGB (red, green, blue), RYB (red, yellow, blue), and CMY (cyan, magenta, yellow). <br />
[[image: Color_circles.png|thumb|right|400px|]]<br />
The left circle was developed by Johannes Itten; it is a circle of the primary colors. The primary colors are still taught in art schools and classes today using this circle. The circle on the right is used today in computer graphics. The additive primary colors of this circle (red, green, and blue) produce white light when added together on a computer. The subtractive primaries (cyan, magenta, and yellow) are the complementary colors on the circle. When they’re added on the computer, they produce black, or the absence of color. When comparing the two circles, we can see that they contradict each other. The circle on the left suggests that red and green are complementary to each other, but in the circle on the right, they are both primary. This example shows that color can be subjective, “the perception of color is inexact, culturally influenced, and personal” (Evans).<br />
<br />
==Obsolete Color Space: RG & Early Film==<br />
<br />
Both Kinemacolor in England and Technicolor used red and green primary colors to produce images in film until blue was introduced as an easier means to produce a fuller image. Early motion pictures in England used this two -color process. Edwin Slosson describes the Kinemacolor system as “red and green being taken and projected alternately by means of a rotating disk of tinted filters. Because an image on the retina persists for about a sixteenth of a second before it fades away, each color fused with the succeeding one, except when movement was too fast (62).” <br />
<br />
Technicolor exposes two strips of black and white film to two different filters simultaneously. One was behind a red filter and the other a green. It had much the same problems as Kinemacolor because of the issue of speed. But since this was an additive method of color mixing, a subtractive method was tried. <br />
<br />
A successor the Gaumont Process used glass plates in an attempt to rectify the RG system. It “employed three pictures taken in the three primary colors by three lenses on the same film and projected through three objectives.” Dots, ruled lines or starch grains were used on the glass plates in the three colors. However, when enlarged, picture quality is diminished so although color is improved overall picture is not.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Bibliography==<br />
<br />
Billmeyer, Fred W., and Max Saltzman. Principles of Color Technology. Second Edition ed. New York: Wiley-Interscience, 1981. 25-66.<br />
<br />
Evans, Brian. "Foundations of a Visual Music." Computer Music Journal 29 (2005): 17-18.<br />
<br />
Gerritsen, Franz. Evolution in Color. Grand Rapids: Schiffer, Limited, 1988.<br />
<br />
Hirsch, Robert. Exploring Colour Photography: A Complete Guide. London: Laurence King, 2004.<br />
<br />
Hunt, R. W., and R. W. Hunt. Measuring Colour : A Photographer's Paradise. New York: Fountain P, Limited, 1996.<br />
<br />
Kindem, Gorham. "The Demise of Kinemacolor: Technological, Legal, Economic, and Aesthetic Problems in Early Color Cinema History." Cinema Journal 20 (1981): 3-14.<br />
<br />
Landa, Edward R. "Albert H. Munsell: A Sense of Color at the Interface of Art and Science." Soil Science 169 (2004): 83-89.<br />
<br />
Microsoft Computer Dictionary. New York: Microsoft P, 2002."The NCS System." The <br />
<br />
Natural Color System. Scandinavian Color Institute. <http://www.ncscolour.com/webbizz/mainpage/main.asp.><br />
<br />
Slosson, Edwin E. "How New Color Movie Camera Works." The Science News-letter 14 (1928): 61-62.</div>Torpillehttp://www.cultureandcommunication.org/deadmedia/index.php?title=Old_Color_Spaces&diff=6236Old Color Spaces2008-12-03T17:55:33Z<p>Torpille: /* Natural Color System & Color Opponency */</p>
<hr />
<div>The color space is a graphic and numerical representation of colors and their relationship to one another. The purpose of the chart is to standardize and quantify what is frequently a subjective experience. Detailed color standards are commonly used in product development and design arenas; standards become outdated rapidly as new products are developed. Color spaces and standards assist in "express[ing] a given color [of an object] accurately, describ[ing] that color to another person, and hav[ing] that person correctly reproduce the color we perceive" (Konica Minolta 1). <br />
<br />
==COLOR BASICS==<br />
<br />
'''HSB or The “Three Dimensions” of Color'''<br />
<br />
(Gerritsen/Microsoft)<br />
<br />
HSB stands for Hue-Saturation-Brightness and is a color model dependent upon a color wheel and the percentage of the amount of white present in a designated hue. <br />
<br />
===Hue===<br />
<br />
Hue is color itself as it is placed on a color wheel where each color has a percentage. Red is at 0o, yellow is 60o, green is 120o, etc. This percentage coincides with the frequency of light waves reflected of any given object for that color in respects to the color spectrum. Each tone group (red, green, etc) can than be affected by saturation and brightness in order to vary its shade and intensity. <br />
<br />
===Saturation===<br />
<br />
Often given as a percentage, saturation is the intensity of color for a specific hue. It can also be described as how different a color is from grey at any lightness. Colors that are more vivid are considered more saturated while colors that are more muddled and closer to grey are less saturated. <br />
<br />
<br />
===Brightness===<br />
<br />
Brightness of an object is a difficult thing to measure because it is perceived. While looking at a computer screen in a dark room, colors appear brighter than if the room was well lit. But generally, brightness measures the luminosity of a color. <br />
<br />
<br />
===Additive Color Mixing===<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Image:additive.jpg|thumb|left|Additive Color Mixing]]<br />
Additive color systems, such as RGB, mix the three primary colors together as a way to produce more colors. The secondary colors of cyan, magenta and yellow are results of mixing two of the three primary colors together. White is created when all three of the primary colors are mixed together proportionately. The additive color theory was discovered by James Clerk Maxwell in conjunction with a photographer, Thomas Sutton. Maxwell had Sutton photograph a piece of ribbon three times, each with a different filter over the lens (one red, one blue, one green). He then projected each image from a different projector onto a common screen. The three separate images then formed a complete one with full coloring. <br />
<br />
<br />
===Subtractive Color Mixing===<br />
<br />
[[Image:subtractive.jpg|thumb|right|Subtractive Color Mixing]]<br />
Louis Ducos du Hauron was responsible for the discovery of the subtractive color theory. Subtractive color mixing removes some colors from white light while allowing others to pass. The CYMK model is an example of a subtractive color space. It uses cyan, yellow, magenta and black to create colors. When white light is passed through one of these secondary and subtractive color filters, two of the primary colors which form the secondary color are transmitted through the filter and the third one is absorbed. When equal amounts of all the subtractive colors overlap, all primary colors are blocked and black is produced. Subtractive color mixing is more advantageous than additive because of its ability to create more colors. When the proportion of overlapping filters is changed, almost any color can be created. Viewing equipment for subtractive coloring is also cheaper (Kirsch 28-35).<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
----<br />
<br />
==The Munsell System==<br />
===Brief Bio===<br />
Albert H. Munsell lived from 1858-1918 in Boston, MA. He attended Massachusetts Normal Art School (now Massachusetts College of Art), where he later became a member of the faculty. Although the color system he began developing is widely used by scientists and artists alike, Munsell did not consider himself a scientist. He was a trained painter frustrated with the lack of color descriptions and a systematic color scheme. Munsell began developing his color system when he was a teaching aid for color composition students. As the system became more advanced, Munsell was able to share his color distinction system with well-respected scientists and engineers around Boston. He published “A Color Notation” in 1905, which described his system so far. Munsell wanted his system to be used in a broad sense, rather than only in science and art. His goal was to use it to teach concepts of color to primary school students. Unfortunately, Munsell’s health began to decline in 1914 and he passed away in Boston in 1918 at the age of 60. After his death, Dorothy Nickerson (who first worked as secretary to Munsell’s son) worked to adapt the Munsell Color System. The charts could finally be put to widespread use 30 years after Munsell died. (Landa)<br />
===The System===<br />
The Munsell system is now the most widely used and accepted color system. All other color systems that arise are compared to the Munsell System, which has come to be known as the standard color system. The system builds on the guiding principle of equal visual perception. This is the idea that we all perceive colors differently, but the system accounts for any small discrepancies based on comparison to a grayscale, assuming the eyes seek the balance of grayscale (Evans). The system is able to describe all possible colors in terms of three coordinates:<br />
<br />
1. Munsell Hue: the quality of a color described at red, yellow, blue and so on<br />
<br />
2. Munsell Value: the place where a color falls in terms of lightness when compared to a scale of grays from white to black<br />
<br />
3. Munsell Chroma: the degree of difference between a color and a gray of the same value.<br />
<br />
The Munsell Book of Color is a compilation of color samples, usually arranged in pages of a book, or on a color “tree.” The Munsell Value is vertical in a display and the Munsell Chroma is horizontal. The scale of grays can be considered the “trunk” of the color tree, going from white on top to black on the bottom. <br />
<br />
<br />
[[image: Munsell_tree.jpg|thumb|center|200px|Munsell Tree]], [[image: Munsell_tree_pages.jpg|thumb|center|200px|Munsell Book]], [[image: Munsell_tree_round.jpg|thumb|center|200px|Munsell Tree]]<br />
<br />
Each sample has a Munsell Notation, which tells us its position on the tree. The notation consists of three symbols that represent Munsell Hue, Munsell Value, and Munsell Chroma. <br />
<br />
[[image: Munsell_notation.jpg|thumb|left|300px|An example of Munsell Notation]]<br />
<br />
The Munsell System is the most accepted color system because colors are not limited to the samples shown, whereas other color systems are. Any color that can be conceived will fit into the Munsell System. (Billmeyer and Saltzman)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Natural Color System & Color Opponency==<br />
<br />
===Color Opponency===<br />
<br />
[[Image:coloropponent.jpg|thumb|left|Color Opponency]]<br />
The Natural Color System is based upon the color opponent theory. The color opponent theory focuses on the uniqueness of four hues and their inability to be described simultaneously. R.W.G. Hunt describes color opponency:<br />
“The hues red, yellow, green and blue are said to be unique because they cannot be described in terms of any combinations of other color names. Thus, for instance, although orange can be described as a yellowish red or reddish yellow, red cannot be described as a yellowish blue or a bluish yellow. In fact the four unique hues comprise two pairs, red and green, and yellow and blue; the colors in each of these pairs are opponent, in the sense that they cannot both be perceived simultaneously as component parts of any one color. That is, it is impossible to have a reddish green, or a greenish red, or a yellowish blue, or a bluish yellow. But yellowish reds… greenish yellows… bluish reds are all possible (140-141).”<br />
Black and white are also used in the color opponent theory to determine variations of light and dark.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===NCS===<br />
<br />
[[Image:NCSNotation.jpg|thumb|right|NCS Notation]]<br />
The Natural Color System was developed by the Scandinavian Color Institute. Using NCS a color is measured based upon its percentage in comparison to a color opponent pair. A color therefore that is purely red and has no green is at 100% red. Darkness of a color and saturation are also taken into consideration when measuring the color being presented. A sample notation taken from the NCS website is shown to the right. The letter S in front simply means that the NCS is responsible for measuring a specific color. The nuance describes the “degree of resemblance to whiteness and blackness.” Chromaticness puts the color at a grey. The ten percent blackness thus mean that there is 40 percent whiteness in the color. The Y90R describes the hue of the color. This example shows a yellowish color with 90 percent red. The ten percent yellow is than inferred (Hunt 141-143/The NCS System). <br />
<br />
[[Image:NCSWheel.jpg|thumb|left|NCS Color Wheel]]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
----<br />
==The CIE Color Space==<br />
<br />
[[Image:cielab.jpg|thumb|left|CIE Lab]]<br />
In 1931, the Commission Internationale de l'Eclairage (CIE) devised the Yxy color space, and in 1976 created the L*a*b* to "provide more uniform color differences in relation to visual differences" (Konica Minolta 14). The CIE systems are used in conjunction with a colorimeter.[[Image:Yxy.jpg|thumb|left|Yxy]]<br />
<br />
The Yxy color space is based on the three-component theory of color vision, which places red, green, and blue as the primary color receptors in the eye. All other colors are combinations of those three primary colors. Because lightness and darkness cannot be taken into consideration with RGB values, a third variable, Y lightness, makes up the Yxy system. Moving towards the center of the graph increases lightness; moving toward the edges increases chromaticity (another word for saturation).<br />
==The CIE L*C*h* Color Space==<br />
[[Image:cielch.jpg|thumb|left|NCS Color Wheel]]<br />
<br />
==Common Color Spaces==<br />
A color space is a three-dimensional concept, in that it considers hue, value, and chroma. The most commonly used color spaces are hue based. These include RGB (red, green, blue), RYB (red, yellow, blue), and CMY (cyan, magenta, yellow). <br />
[[image: Color_circles.png|thumb|right|400px|]]<br />
The left circle was developed by Johannes Itten; it is a circle of the primary colors. The primary colors are still taught in art schools and classes today using this circle. The circle on the right is used today in computer graphics. The additive primary colors of this circle (red, green, and blue) produce white light when added together on a computer. The subtractive primaries (cyan, magenta, and yellow) are the complementary colors on the circle. When they’re added on the computer, they produce black, or the absence of color. When comparing the two circles, we can see that they contradict each other. The circle on the left suggests that red and green are complementary to each other, but in the circle on the right, they are both primary. This example shows that color can be subjective, “the perception of color is inexact, culturally influenced, and personal” (Evans).<br />
<br />
==Obsolete Color Space: RG & Early Film==<br />
<br />
Both Kinemacolor in England and Technicolor used red and green primary colors to produce images in film until blue was introduced as an easier means to produce a fuller image. Early motion pictures in England used this two -color process. Edwin Slosson describes the Kinemacolor system as “red and green being taken and projected alternately by means of a rotating disk of tinted filters. Because an image on the retina persists for about a sixteenth of a second before it fades away, each color fused with the succeeding one, except when movement was too fast (62).” <br />
<br />
Technicolor exposes two strips of black and white film to two different filters simultaneously. One was behind a red filter and the other a green. It had much the same problems as Kinemacolor because of the issue of speed. But since this was an additive method of color mixing, a subtractive method was tried. <br />
<br />
A successor the Gaumont Process used glass plates in an attempt to rectify the RG system. It “employed three pictures taken in the three primary colors by three lenses on the same film and projected through three objectives.” Dots, ruled lines or starch grains were used on the glass plates in the three colors. However, when enlarged, picture quality is diminished so although color is improved overall picture is not.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Bibliography==<br />
<br />
Billmeyer, Fred W., and Max Saltzman. Principles of Color Technology. Second Edition ed. New York: Wiley-Interscience, 1981. 25-66.<br />
<br />
Evans, Brian. "Foundations of a Visual Music." Computer Music Journal 29 (2005): 17-18.<br />
<br />
Gerritsen, Franz. Evolution in Color. Grand Rapids: Schiffer, Limited, 1988.<br />
<br />
Hirsch, Robert. Exploring Colour Photography: A Complete Guide. London: Laurence King, 2004.<br />
<br />
Hunt, R. W., and R. W. Hunt. Measuring Colour : A Photographer's Paradise. New York: Fountain P, Limited, 1996.<br />
<br />
Kindem, Gorham. "The Demise of Kinemacolor: Technological, Legal, Economic, and Aesthetic Problems in Early Color Cinema History." Cinema Journal 20 (1981): 3-14.<br />
<br />
Landa, Edward R. "Albert H. Munsell: A Sense of Color at the Interface of Art and Science." Soil Science 169 (2004): 83-89.<br />
<br />
Microsoft Computer Dictionary. New York: Microsoft P, 2002."The NCS System." The <br />
<br />
Natural Color System. Scandinavian Color Institute. <http://www.ncscolour.com/webbizz/mainpage/main.asp.><br />
<br />
Slosson, Edwin E. "How New Color Movie Camera Works." The Science News-letter 14 (1928): 61-62.</div>Torpillehttp://www.cultureandcommunication.org/deadmedia/index.php?title=Old_Color_Spaces&diff=6235Old Color Spaces2008-12-03T17:26:31Z<p>Torpille: /* COLOR BASICS */</p>
<hr />
<div>The color space is a graphic and numerical representation of colors and their relationship to one another. The purpose of the chart is to standardize and quantify what is frequently a subjective experience. Detailed color standards are commonly used in product development and design arenas; standards become outdated rapidly as new products are developed. Color spaces and standards assist in "express[ing] a given color [of an object] accurately, describ[ing] that color to another person, and hav[ing] that person correctly reproduce the color we perceive" (Konica Minolta 1). <br />
<br />
==COLOR BASICS==<br />
<br />
'''HSB or The “Three Dimensions” of Color'''<br />
<br />
(Gerritsen/Microsoft)<br />
<br />
HSB stands for Hue-Saturation-Brightness and is a color model dependent upon a color wheel and the percentage of the amount of white present in a designated hue. <br />
<br />
===Hue===<br />
<br />
Hue is color itself as it is placed on a color wheel where each color has a percentage. Red is at 0o, yellow is 60o, green is 120o, etc. This percentage coincides with the frequency of light waves reflected of any given object for that color in respects to the color spectrum. Each tone group (red, green, etc) can than be affected by saturation and brightness in order to vary its shade and intensity. <br />
<br />
===Saturation===<br />
<br />
Often given as a percentage, saturation is the intensity of color for a specific hue. It can also be described as how different a color is from grey at any lightness. Colors that are more vivid are considered more saturated while colors that are more muddled and closer to grey are less saturated. <br />
<br />
<br />
===Brightness===<br />
<br />
Brightness of an object is a difficult thing to measure because it is perceived. While looking at a computer screen in a dark room, colors appear brighter than if the room was well lit. But generally, brightness measures the luminosity of a color. <br />
<br />
<br />
===Additive Color Mixing===<br />
<br />
<br />
[[Image:additive.jpg|thumb|left|Additive Color Mixing]]<br />
Additive color systems, such as RGB, mix the three primary colors together as a way to produce more colors. The secondary colors of cyan, magenta and yellow are results of mixing two of the three primary colors together. White is created when all three of the primary colors are mixed together proportionately. The additive color theory was discovered by James Clerk Maxwell in conjunction with a photographer, Thomas Sutton. Maxwell had Sutton photograph a piece of ribbon three times, each with a different filter over the lens (one red, one blue, one green). He then projected each image from a different projector onto a common screen. The three separate images then formed a complete one with full coloring. <br />
<br />
<br />
===Subtractive Color Mixing===<br />
<br />
[[Image:subtractive.jpg|thumb|right|Subtractive Color Mixing]]<br />
Louis Ducos du Hauron was responsible for the discovery of the subtractive color theory. Subtractive color mixing removes some colors from white light while allowing others to pass. The CYMK model is an example of a subtractive color space. It uses cyan, yellow, magenta and black to create colors. When white light is passed through one of these secondary and subtractive color filters, two of the primary colors which form the secondary color are transmitted through the filter and the third one is absorbed. When equal amounts of all the subtractive colors overlap, all primary colors are blocked and black is produced. Subtractive color mixing is more advantageous than additive because of its ability to create more colors. When the proportion of overlapping filters is changed, almost any color can be created. Viewing equipment for subtractive coloring is also cheaper (Kirsch 28-35).<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
----<br />
<br />
==The Munsell System==<br />
===Brief Bio===<br />
Albert H. Munsell lived from 1858-1918 in Boston, MA. He attended Massachusetts Normal Art School (now Massachusetts College of Art), where he later became a member of the faculty. Although the color system he began developing is widely used by scientists and artists alike, Munsell did not consider himself a scientist. He was a trained painter frustrated with the lack of color descriptions and a systematic color scheme. Munsell began developing his color system when he was a teaching aid for color composition students. As the system became more advanced, Munsell was able to share his color distinction system with well-respected scientists and engineers around Boston. He published “A Color Notation” in 1905, which described his system so far. Munsell wanted his system to be used in a broad sense, rather than only in science and art. His goal was to use it to teach concepts of color to primary school students. Unfortunately, Munsell’s health began to decline in 1914 and he passed away in Boston in 1918 at the age of 60. After his death, Dorothy Nickerson (who first worked as secretary to Munsell’s son) worked to adapt the Munsell Color System. The charts could finally be put to widespread use 30 years after Munsell died. (Landa)<br />
===The System===<br />
The Munsell system is now the most widely used and accepted color system. All other color systems that arise are compared to the Munsell System, which has come to be known as the standard color system. The system builds on the guiding principle of equal visual perception. This is the idea that we all perceive colors differently, but the system accounts for any small discrepancies based on comparison to a grayscale, assuming the eyes seek the balance of grayscale (Evans). The system is able to describe all possible colors in terms of three coordinates:<br />
<br />
1. Munsell Hue: the quality of a color described at red, yellow, blue and so on<br />
<br />
2. Munsell Value: the place where a color falls in terms of lightness when compared to a scale of grays from white to black<br />
<br />
3. Munsell Chroma: the degree of difference between a color and a gray of the same value.<br />
<br />
The Munsell Book of Color is a compilation of color samples, usually arranged in pages of a book, or on a color “tree.” The Munsell Value is vertical in a display and the Munsell Chroma is horizontal. The scale of grays can be considered the “trunk” of the color tree, going from white on top to black on the bottom. <br />
<br />
<br />
[[image: Munsell_tree.jpg|thumb|center|200px|Munsell Tree]], [[image: Munsell_tree_pages.jpg|thumb|center|200px|Munsell Book]], [[image: Munsell_tree_round.jpg|thumb|center|200px|Munsell Tree]]<br />
<br />
Each sample has a Munsell Notation, which tells us its position on the tree. The notation consists of three symbols that represent Munsell Hue, Munsell Value, and Munsell Chroma. <br />
<br />
[[image: Munsell_notation.jpg|thumb|left|300px|An example of Munsell Notation]]<br />
<br />
The Munsell System is the most accepted color system because colors are not limited to the samples shown, whereas other color systems are. Any color that can be conceived will fit into the Munsell System. (Billmeyer and Saltzman)<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Natural Color System & Color Opponency==<br />
<br />
===Color Opponency===<br />
<br />
[[Image:coloropponent.jpg|thumb|left|Color Opponency]]<br />
The Natural Color System is based upon the color opponent theory. The color opponent theory focuses on the uniqueness of four hues and their inability to be described simultaneously. R.W.G. Hunt describes color opponency:<br />
“The hues red, yellow, green and blue are said to be unique because they cannot be described in terms of any combinations of other color names. Thus, for instance, although orange can be described as a yellowish red or reddish yellow, red cannot be described as a yellowish blue or a bluish yellow. In fact the four unique hues comprise two pairs, red and green, and yellow and blue; the colors in each of these pairs are opponent, in the sense that they cannot both be perceived simultaneously as component parts of any one color. That is, it is impossible to have a reddish green, or a greenish red, or a yellowish blue, or a bluish yellow. But yellowish reds… greenish yellows… bluish reds are all possible (140-141).”<br />
Black and white are also used in the color opponent theory to determine variations of light and dark.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
===NCS===<br />
<br />
[[Image:NCSNotation.jpg|thumb|right|NCS Notation]]<br />
The Natural Color System was developed by the Scandinavian Color Institute. Using NCS a color is measured based upon its percentage in comparison to a color opponent pair. A color therefore that is purely red and has no green is at 100% red. Darkness of a color and saturation are also taken into consideration when measuring the color being presented. A sample notation taken from the NCS website is shown to the right. The letter S in front simply means that the NCS is responsible for measuring a specific color. The nuance describes the “degree of resemblance to whiteness and blackness.” Chromaticness puts the color at a grey. The ten percent blackness thus mean that there is 40 percent whiteness in the color. The Y90R describes the hue of the color. This example shows a yellowish color with 90 percent red. The ten percent yellow is than inferred (Hunt 141-143/The NCS System). <br />
<br />
[[Image:NCSWheel.jpg|thumb|left|NCS Color Wheel]]<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
----<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Common Color Spaces==<br />
A color space is a three-dimensional concept, in that it considers hue, value, and chroma. The most commonly used color spaces are hue based. These include RGB (red, green, blue), RYB (red, yellow, blue), and CMY (cyan, magenta, yellow). <br />
[[image: Color_circles.png|thumb|right|400px|]]<br />
The left circle was developed by Johannes Itten; it is a circle of the primary colors. The primary colors are still taught in art schools and classes today using this circle. The circle on the right is used today in computer graphics. The additive primary colors of this circle (red, green, and blue) produce white light when added together on a computer. The subtractive primaries (cyan, magenta, and yellow) are the complementary colors on the circle. When they’re added on the computer, they produce black, or the absence of color. When comparing the two circles, we can see that they contradict each other. The circle on the left suggests that red and green are complementary to each other, but in the circle on the right, they are both primary. This example shows that color can be subjective, “the perception of color is inexact, culturally influenced, and personal” (Evans).<br />
<br />
==Obsolete Color Space: RG & Early Film==<br />
<br />
Both Kinemacolor in England and Technicolor used red and green primary colors to produce images in film until blue was introduced as an easier means to produce a fuller image. Early motion pictures in England used this two -color process. Edwin Slosson describes the Kinemacolor system as “red and green being taken and projected alternately by means of a rotating disk of tinted filters. Because an image on the retina persists for about a sixteenth of a second before it fades away, each color fused with the succeeding one, except when movement was too fast (62).” <br />
<br />
Technicolor exposes two strips of black and white film to two different filters simultaneously. One was behind a red filter and the other a green. It had much the same problems as Kinemacolor because of the issue of speed. But since this was an additive method of color mixing, a subtractive method was tried. <br />
<br />
A successor the Gaumont Process used glass plates in an attempt to rectify the RG system. It “employed three pictures taken in the three primary colors by three lenses on the same film and projected through three objectives.” Dots, ruled lines or starch grains were used on the glass plates in the three colors. However, when enlarged, picture quality is diminished so although color is improved overall picture is not.<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
==Bibliography==<br />
<br />
Billmeyer, Fred W., and Max Saltzman. Principles of Color Technology. Second Edition ed. New York: Wiley-Interscience, 1981. 25-66.<br />
<br />
Evans, Brian. "Foundations of a Visual Music." Computer Music Journal 29 (2005): 17-18.<br />
<br />
Gerritsen, Franz. Evolution in Color. Grand Rapids: Schiffer, Limited, 1988.<br />
<br />
Hirsch, Robert. Exploring Colour Photography: A Complete Guide. London: Laurence King, 2004.<br />
<br />
Hunt, R. W., and R. W. Hunt. Measuring Colour : A Photographer's Paradise. New York: Fountain P, Limited, 1996.<br />
<br />
Kindem, Gorham. "The Demise of Kinemacolor: Technological, Legal, Economic, and Aesthetic Problems in Early Color Cinema History." Cinema Journal 20 (1981): 3-14.<br />
<br />
Landa, Edward R. "Albert H. Munsell: A Sense of Color at the Interface of Art and Science." Soil Science 169 (2004): 83-89.<br />
<br />
Microsoft Computer Dictionary. New York: Microsoft P, 2002."The NCS System." The <br />
<br />
Natural Color System. Scandinavian Color Institute. <http://www.ncscolour.com/webbizz/mainpage/main.asp.><br />
<br />
Slosson, Edwin E. "How New Color Movie Camera Works." The Science News-letter 14 (1928): 61-62.</div>Torpillehttp://www.cultureandcommunication.org/deadmedia/index.php?title=Secretarial_Letter_Dictation&diff=6030Secretarial Letter Dictation2008-11-19T18:27:08Z<p>Torpille: /* Stenography in secretarial duties */</p>
<hr />
<div>== Basics of secretarial positions ==<br />
<br />
Secretarial work, in one form or another, has existed since writing has existed; scribes were the first incarnation, followed by clerks. With the commercialization of the typewriter in the late 1800s and their adoption in the 1900s, record-keeping and composition became increasingly integral to modern businesess and organizations. Originally, most outgoing business correspondence was handled by business owners and a hired clerk, and was usually handwritten (Yates 25). This was an incredibly time consuming, laborious process, and made record keeping confusing, as all incoming and outgoing communication was hand copied so it was impractical to keep more than one comprehensive book of correspondence (Yates 38). Speedwriting and stenography along with typing skills sped up the process of bureaucracy and were delegated to women, particularly young women, in the 1900s. <br />
<br />
The origins of the word secretary are generally agreed to be related to secret-keeping and trust. According to Edward Jones Kilduff, the word secretary "has its origin in common with the word secret, for both are derived from the Latin word secretus, which means private, secret, or pertaining to private or secret matters. Hence came the general definition of secretary as a person who is intrusted with private or secret matters; a confidential officer or attendant; a confidant" (Kilduff 3).<br />
<br />
== Secretary as mediums ==<br />
<br />
In a sense, secretarial work is a kind of 'medium' in and of itself. Secretaries receive communications from all types of sources; it is up to the secretary to determine which communications are the most pressing, and which do not deserve attention, and forward the important communications to the boss. Communications between businesses, especially letters, were not usually written by the businesspeople themselves--rather, the businessperson would speak (dictate) what was in the letter while the secretary/stenographer would write in shorthand what her supervisor dictated, and then type the letter on a typewriter with correct 'form,' meaning correcting any grammatical errors, formatting, spelling, detail work, etc. Essentially mail communications would go from a businessman to his secretary to another secretary to the businessman she represented. This was also true of phone calls and visitors: all communications had to pass through the secretary before reaching the intended recipient.<br />
<br />
Secretaries themselves still exist, but their duties have changed drastically due to email communications, word processing, and various other technologies. Letter dictation in particular is now incredibly rare, perhaps because of the common use of word processing technologies which drastically reduce the time needed to compose documents. Like the demise of the scribe due to increased literacy and printing, the stenographic duties of the secretary have diminished due to computing technologies. However, stenographers (using stenographic typewriters) are still in use in the legal system alongside voice-to-speech technology in case of computer failure.<br />
<br />
== Stenography in secretarial duties ==<br />
<br />
Stenography, or the practice of transcribing spoken word, was essential to the duties of a secretary, and a fast speed (usually of 100 words per minute), was desirable. "Except in the instances of college graduates, of persons who have received a specialized training in secretarial work, and of those who posess some exceptional qualification (a knowledge of financial matters or the ability to write well, for example), it is very difficult to obtain a position as a real private secretary without first having served an apprenticeship as a stenographer" (Kilduff 358).<br />
[[Image:gregg.jpg|thumb|left]]<br />
The importance of stenography, and particularly accurate stenography, for the secretary was expressed by George E. Roberts, vice president of National City Bank of New York City, "If my stenographer is not wholly accurate and dependable in transcribing her notes--her share of this mutual work--the effectiveness of my letter suffers. Through carelessness she has made me appear to say things I did not say, she has inclined my reader to the belief that I am ungrammatical, and by her inaccuracies in typing she has caused my letter to make an unfavorable impression. [...] Letter writing is an important function in business, and is becoming of greater importance because of the fact that transactions carried on by means of letters are rapidly increasing in number. The personal contact between a business house and its customers that existed in former years is being supplanted by a contact by letters. And all of this means that we must today make our letters more efficient. To do so we must enlist the coöperation of our stenographers to perform efficiently their share of the work of getting out good letters--letters that are accurate in transcription, correct in spelling, grammar, and punctuation, and pleasing in appearance" (Kilduff 13). This excerpt suggests that secretaries only copied exactly what was written, but frequently part of their duty was to correct wording, phrasing, and grammar, and know all of the correct formats, sort of like what Microsoft Word does with its Paperclip helper.<br />
<br />
Many different types of speedwriting and [[shorthand]] exist, including the Pitman and Graham styles. College courses on shorthand were a popular choice for young women, and considered to be very practical. An example of this is in Sylvia Plath's novel ''The Bell Jar'', in which the Plath-based protagonist Esther's mother encourages Esther to take shorthand instead of trying to be a poet. Esther rejects this, seeing shorthand as a sure way into a subservient lifestyle.<br />
<br />
Typically pens were utilized more by secretaries than pencils, because the pen required less muscular exertion, allowed for faster movements, preserved better than pencil marks, and were generally more legible (Gregg 46). Other tools involved in the dictation process include the steno notebook.<br />
<br />
== The typewriter's role in the growth of the secretary ==<br />
[[Image:typist.jpg|thumb|right|Female typist, 1926 (Yates 40)]]<br />
In 1890, the U.S. Census reported 33,000 people employed as stenographers/typists, and by 1900, there were 134,000 people employed as stenographers, typists, and secretaries. In 1910, that number doubled; and in 1920 doubled again--786,000 secretaries (Yates 43). The typewriter allowed for a massive boom in the amount of women in the workforce: in 1871, only four percent of total commercial (business skills) school was female, and by 1900, that number leaped to 36 percent (Yates 44).<br />
<br />
Before the typewriter, letters were usually drafted and finalized by the composer of the letter--that is to say, the writer (the one who thought up the source of the material) and the writer (the one who performed the physical act of writing) were one in the same. With the advent of the typewriter, the two acts were separated entirely. According to Yates, the typewriter allowed "increasing subdivision of tasks and specialization of jobs, with the techniques of systematic management to coordinate the various specialized elements" in order to maximize efficiency. The typewriter further reduced the amount of time spent by highly paid executives on letter-writing, instead moving that task to lesser-paid secretarial workers (44). <br />
<br />
With the popularization of personal computers and word processing, this separation of composing and typing has again merged, as executives can easily write their own letters and internal communication is done increasingly through e-mail.<br />
<br />
== Secretary as extension of self ==<br />
<br />
What is particularly interesting about the secretary as a medium was the focus on her appearances, or 'poise.' While secretarial handbooks emphasize fast typing and shorthand skills along with organizational skills, each book has lengthly sections on the presentation of a secretary. As is expected, secretaries had dress requirements like we do today in offices, but even more requests on the attributes of secretaries were made. For example, a desired quality among secretaries was a pleasing voice, and to smile. Becker encourages secretaries to be 'phonogeninc' while on the telephone, at least until "television becomes a practical commercial reality" for telecommunications (73). Particular posture was requested--"Draping yourself about furniture, or leaning against files or doors as if they were lampposts is similarly condemned" (Becker 106)--and only pale nailpolish acceptable. One secretary recommends wearing blue frequently, as "[m]en almost universally like blue" (103). <br />
<br />
Manners were also essential, and women were thought to be much better at mannered speech and behavior than men, and more adept at being 'channels.' Edward Kilduff explains, "In so far as any general statement can be true, male secretaries are more likely not to possess suitable manners than are female secretaries; perhaps because it is man's nature to be more unrestrained and more independent than women, perhaps because men are not so sensitive to the effects of manners as women are and hence do not appreciate their value." Men, essentially, made bad mediums because they are too independent, more productive, and more creative than women.<br />
<br />
The work a secretary did, particularly letters, were not signed by secretaries but rather bosses, and it was important that they and their work was reflective of their employers. The secretary, ideally, was to be involved, but not necessarily thought of as a 'producer' of content--only visible as an extension rather than authority: "Letters are an expression of an executive's personality. Don't you, as a secretary, quickly spot any flaws that come to your employer's desk? Don't you judge other secretaries and their employers by the kind of letters they mail from their offices?" (Becker 11)<br />
<br />
The ideal secretary was one who was trustworthy with private data, efficient, reliable, and attractive. She, as one employer describes in ''Secretaries Who Succeed'', served as "an extension of my own brain" (37). This sentiment has been echoed in the present with new technologies such as the iPhone, Blackberries, and laptops--all of which similarly serve as both status symbols, secret-keepers, transmitters of data, and as extensions of one's consciousness.<br />
<br />
== Letter dictation in pop culture ==<br />
<br />
In ''Monty Python's Flying Circus'' episode 33 (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hf0FFAFqle8) letter dictation is parodied. Biggles dictates a letter to his secretary, who is confused as to exactly what words to transcribe in this exchange:<br />
[[Image:biggles.jpg|thumb|right|Biggles puts on antlers to indicate he is not dictating]]<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Biggles.''' Just put down what I say.<br />
<br />
'''Secretary.''' Do I put that down?<br />
<br />
'''Biggles.''' Of course you don't put that down.<br />
<br />
'''Secretary.''' Well what about that?<br />
<br />
'''Biggles.''' Look. Don't put that down. Just put down - wait a mo - wait a mo. (puts on his antlers) Now, when I've got these antlers on - when I've got these antlers on I am dictating and when I take them off (takes antlers off) I am not dictating.<br />
<br />
'''Secretary.''' (types) I am not dictating.<br />
<br />
'''Biggles.''' What? (puts the antlers on) Read that back.<br />
<br />
'''Secretary.''' Dear King Haakon, I am not dictating what?<br />
<br />
'''Biggles.''' No, no, no, you loopy brothel inmate.<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<br />
Becker, Esther R. ''Secretaries Who Succeed''. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1947.<br />
<br />
Charters, W. W. and Isadore B. Whitley. ''Summary of Report on Analysis of Secretarial Duties and Traits.'' New York: The National Junior Personell Service, Inc., 1924.<br />
<br />
Doutt, Howard M. ''Secretarial Science''. Chicago: Richard D. Irwin, Inc., 1944.<br />
<br />
"Episode 33." ''Monty Python's Flying Circus.'' BBC. 30 Nov 1972.<br />
<br />
Kilduff, Edward Jones. ''The Private Secretary''. New York: D. Appleton-Century Company, 1924.<br />
<br />
Pitman, Isaac. ''New Standard Dictation Course.'' New York: Pittman & Sons, 1933.<br />
<br />
Yates, JoAnne. ''Control Through Communication.'' Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989.</div>Torpillehttp://www.cultureandcommunication.org/deadmedia/index.php?title=Main_Page&diff=5988Main Page2008-11-12T18:26:33Z<p>Torpille: /* Dead Media Dossiers */</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Media Archaeology'''<br />
<br />
[http://cultureandcommunication.org/galloway/2008spr-MediaArchaeology.html Media Archaeology course syllabus] (Spring 2008) <br />
<br />
Over the last decade or so, scholars in several disciplines have embarked on a series of media-archaeological excavations, sifting through the layers of early and obsolete practices and technologies of communication. The archaeological metaphor evokes both the desire to recover material traces of the past and the imperative to situate those traces in their social, cultural, and political contexts--while always watching our steps. This graduate seminar will examine some of the most important contributions to the field of media archaeology.<br />
<br />
The course follows a research studio format in which students undertake archaeological projects of their own in the area of forgotten, obsolete, or otherwise "dead" media technologies. This might include papyrus, Athanasius Kircher's seventeenth-century magic lantern, or the common slide projector, discontinued by Kodak in 2004. Our goal is to introduce students to the skills and resources necessary for producing rigorous research on such obsolete and obscure media. It will include an exposure to scholarship in media archaeology; an intensive introduction to research methods; instruction on the localization and utilization of word, image, and sound archives; and an emphasis on restoring media artifacts to their proper social and cultural context. The course stems from the premise that media archaeology is best undertaken, like any archaeological project, collaboratively. Hence the course follows a research studio model commonly used in disciplines such as architecture or design.<br />
<br />
= Dead Media Dossiers = <br />
<br />
{| cellpadding="0" cellspacing="20"<br />
<br />
<br />
||<br />
<br />
[[3D Television]]<br />
<br />
[[8-track Tape]]<br />
<br />
[[Autopen]]<br />
<br />
[[BeOS]]<br />
<br />
[[Camera Lucida]]<br />
<br />
[[Camera Obscura]]<br />
<br />
[[Car Phone]]<br />
<br />
[[Chirograph (Cyrograph)]]<br />
<br />
[[Civil Defense Siren]]<br />
<br />
[[Credit Card Imprinter]]<br />
<br />
[[Daguerreotype]]<br />
<br />
[[Discipline]]<br />
<br />
[[Data Visualization and Defunct Visual Metaphors]]<br />
<br />
[[Dumbwaiter]]<br />
<br />
[[Dymaxion House]]<br />
<br />
[[Ear Trumpet]]<br />
<br />
[[Electric Pen]]<br />
<br />
[[Enigma machine]]<br />
<br />
[[Experiential Typewriter]]<br />
<br />
[[Glass Harmonica]]<br />
<br />
[[Hierarchy]]<br />
<br />
[[Hip Pocket Records]]<br />
<br />
[[Hollerith Punch Card]]<br />
<br />
[[Homing Pigeons]]<br />
<br />
[[Hotel Annunciator]]<br />
<br />
<br />
||<br />
<br />
[[Kinora]]<br />
<br />
[[Magic Lantern]]<br />
<br />
[[Marine Chronometer]]<br />
<br />
[[The Market]]<br />
<br />
[[Medieval Mariner's Compass]]<br />
<br />
[[Mechanical Television]]<br />
<br />
[[Megalethoscope]]<br />
<br />
[[MiniDisc]]<br />
<br />
[[Minitel]]<br />
<br />
[[Mood Ring]]<br />
<br />
[[Movable Type]]<br />
<br />
[[Mystical Writing Pad]]<br />
<br />
[[Nansen Passport]]<br />
<br />
[[Newspaper via Radio Facsimile]]<br />
<br />
[[NeXT Step]]<br />
<br />
[[Nickelodeon]]<br />
<br />
[[Notificator]]<br />
<br />
[[Panorama]]<br />
<br />
[[Parrots & Birds as Symbols of Surveillance]]<br />
<br />
[[Peruvian Quipu]]<br />
<br />
[[Phonograph Doll]]<br />
<br />
||<br />
<br />
[[Photographic Gun]]<br />
<br />
[[Picturephone]]<br />
<br />
[[Player Piano]]<br />
<br />
[[Pneumatic Tubes]]<br />
<br />
[[Polaroid Camera]]<br />
<br />
[[Political Effigies]]<br />
<br />
[[Roentgen Ray Tube]]<br />
<br />
[[Secretarial Letter Dictation]]<br />
<br />
[[Semaphore Telegraph]]<br />
<br />
[[Shorthand]]<br />
<br />
[[Smell Organ]]<br />
<br />
[[Spirit Duplicator]]<br />
<br />
[[Spirit Photography]]<br />
<br />
[[Standardization]]<br />
<br />
[[Steenbeck]]<br />
<br />
[[Stereoscope]]<br />
<br />
[[Stock Ticker Machine]]<br />
<br />
[[Talking Book]]<br />
<br />
[[Talking View-Master]]<br />
<br />
[[Telautograph]]<br />
<br />
[[Telharmonium]]<br />
<br />
[[Typewriter]]<br />
<br />
[[The Victrola]]<br />
<br />
[[Virtual boy]]<br />
<br />
[[Wire Recording]]<br />
<br />
[[Wax Cylinder]]<br />
<br />
[[Zuse palimpsest]]<br />
<br />
|}<br />
<br />
= Critical Techniques =<br />
<br />
As a group we are developing a series of techniques that help facilitate the analysis of dead media artifacts. These questions are provisional and may not be appropriate for all artifacts. They are meant as tools for critical exploration. <br />
<br />
* "[[Pops and hisses]]" -- Pops and hisses refers to the background noise often heard on phonograph recordings resulting from inconsistencies in the underlying material. Research Question: What are the unavoidable, obtrusive material qualities of the substrate itself that enter into the medium's overall system of representation? <br />
<br />
* [[Skeuomorph, or the "click"]] -- Single-lens reflex (SLR) cameras make a clicking sound when taking a picture. The click results from a mechanical operation: an internal mirror moves aside and the shutter opens, exposing the film to light. Many of today's digital cameras have no shutter and no internal mirror, yet they still simulate the click using a digital audio sample. Why? Research Question: What qualities of the artifact are unnecessary at the material level but are still nevertheless necessary at the semiotic level? Where is the "click"? <br />
<br />
* Remediation -- Like the "click," remediation refers to the process through which older media formats are simulated, extended, coopted, modified, tamed, or rendered obsolete by new media formats. Research Questions: What came before this artifact? What newer medium came after? What traits are lost or preserved in the historical transformation from one system to another? <br />
<br />
* "Functional nonsense" -- Functional nonsense refers to actual material qualities of the medium that are necessary for the medium to function correctly but which have no semantic or semiotic purpose. A good illustration is the [[Chirograph (Cyrograph)|chirograph]] which requires that some word -- by custom it was often the word "chirograph" -- be inscribed across the midsection of a document. The word is then cut in half, certifying and authenticating the two pieces. The word "chirograph" is therefore highly functional, but semantically irrelevant. Research Question: What qualities of the artifact are unnecessary at the semiotic or semantic level but are nevertheless crucial to its functioning correctly?<br />
<br />
* Encoding -- Research Question: What symbolic system is used in the medium to encode and decode messages? <br />
<br />
* Digital versus analog -- Research Questions: What parts of the artifact conform to a model of representation using discrete sample points, and what parts use a continuously variable input? Are the two hybridized and if so how? <br />
<br />
* The "obvious" -- In every medium there are techniques and design conventions that result from the prevalent tendencies of the historical situation. For example, the problem of writing and reproduction in the modern period was "solved" using mechanical levers, metal type, presses and inks, while the problem of writing and reproduction in the late twentieth century was solved using an entirely different set of techniques: digital code, microchips, and LCDs. Research Question: What aspects of the medium result from large scale paradigms appropriate to the historical context? <br />
<br />
* The "arbitrary" -- Every medium also contains entirely unmotivated and unexplainable traits. Western writing runs left to right, top to bottom. But this convention is arbitrary. Research Question: What specific aspects of the medium have no material or semiotic reason for being? <br />
<br />
* Formal prohibitions/affordances -- Communications media often put clear limitations on where and how messages can originate and be received. Radio began as a two-way medium, but evolved into a broadcast medium. Research Questions: Who can read in this medium? Who can write in this medium? Is there an asymmetrical relationship between those who can send and those who can receive? What types of values are embedded in the affordances of the technology?<br />
<br />
* The "Hack" -- Given a set of formal prohibitions, do there exist alternate practices of use that change the intended outcome of the medium? For example, DJs "hack" record players when they "spin" records, using their hands to overcome the formal prohibitions of the record player, resulting in the advent of a new style of music. [[Hacking this assignment]]. [TODO: add to this -- mention improvisation, play.]<br />
<br />
* [[The "Cake Mix" effect]] -- Research Questions: What part of the process is streamlined, mechanized, or determined in advance, and what part of the process must be performed by the user? For example, Karaoke machines mechanize the instrumental part of a song, and the user performs the vocals. [TODO: add to this] Prior to the use of tape as a means of recording, the composer had to work with a finite set of possibilities and sounds. With the advent of tape, the sonic substance became malleable, and cuttable. What effect does the mechanized portion of the process have on the emergence of the new? What effect does the streamlined portion of the process have on the overall mode of representation?<br />
<br />
* [[The "Reversal"]] -- Is there a point where maximum efficiency within a medium forces it into obsolescence? Mapmaking was ridden with errors due to difficulties in measuring longitude, but once the Marine Chronometer made it possible to plot the exact coordinates of a given position in space, and the grid mapped upon geographic representations was perfected, it was no longer necessary to use a map for navigation since a course could be plotted without any geographic references. (Additional question/theory: Is a "sampling" medium capable of reversal, or is it only threatened by upgraded mediums that are more efficient? Is the Reversal only possible in a "programming" scenario?)<br />
<br />
* [[The "Break Boundary"]] -- Research Questions: Is there a point beyond which "the system generated by the artifact suddenly changes into another or passes some point of no return in its dynamic processes?" Or what specific reconfigurations in the spatio-temporal framework surrounding the media environment of the artifact might "break" the dynamics which it was attended to address? [DO OTHERS AGREE THIS IS WORTH ADDRESSING? a suggestion via McLuhan that might be worth talking about - perhaps an attribute that doesn't apply to the material framework of the object, but maybe one that is crucial in establishing the artifact's relevance and obsolescence?]<br />
<br />
* "Bad Weather" (non-diegetic influences?) -- The [[Semaphore Telegraph]] was unable to operate in fog. External inputs often influence the proper functioning of media. Research Questions: What external events exist that might cause the medium to operate in flawed or unexpected ways? Does the medium try to shield itself from the outside world? If so, how does this change the format in question?<br />
<br />
* "Guts" -- Some dead media, like the [[NeXT Step]], hide their internal guts inside a [[black box]]. Others like the [[Kinora]] expose their inner workings for all to see. The way in which a media object alternately reveals or hides its insides greatly influences how it is understood, used, and analyzed. Research Questions: Does the medium in question hide or reveal its own internal functioning? If the guts are displayed, does this "technologize" the medium or change it in other ways? If the guts are hidden, does this reify or fetishize the object in question?<br />
<br />
* "Iris vs. Hermes" -- Most media can be charted on a continuum between Iris and Hermes. Both Iris and Hermes were Greek gods of communication; Iris was a messenger for Hera, and Hermes for Zeus. Yet while Hermes facilitated communication by accompanying messages, guiding trade, appearing alongside travelers and otherwise chaperoning interconnections between people, Iris relayed messages by immanently internalizing them in the physically of her own body. For Iris, the medium is the message. Hermes however was more of a letter carrier, keeping the outer envelop distinct from the inner content of the message. Research Questions: Does the medium maintain a separation between the symbolic layer of the medium and the material substrate? Or does the physicality of the medium itself mean something without recourse to surface inscriptions?<br />
<br />
* [["The Sample vs. the Program"]] (Witnessing vs Interpreting / Feeling vs Perceiving) -- Some media can be inscribed by simply being turned on and allowed to feel, or sample the content they remediate - yet other media generate complete nonsense unless a highly specialized and refined language code or aesthetic has been mastered and applied in the process of inscription. Research Questions: Does the medium demand a great deal of analysis before the act of inscription, or does it appropriate material that can be processed and interpreted later? Does the noise of the medium illustrate a condition external to the user's actions (ie background noise) or does the noise illustrate imperfect execution of a symbolic system (misspellings, syntactical errors, grammatical nonsense, freudian slips etc.)? Does the medium demand a complex understanding of the given content (embodying an informational cultural bias) or does it appear to witness with an inhuman objectivity?<br />
<br />
* [[Mediatic Etymology]] - Proposes a methodology for theorizing the existence of dead media by inverting the process of remediation.<br />
<br />
* [[Where do media go to die?]] -- Some artifacts or representational practices may no longer perform a useful function or satisfy popular needs in the current media ecology, but they don't necessarily disappear. Research question: What constitutes a/the moment of death? Is the artifact or representational practice obsolete (outmoded or inoperable) or outright extinct?<br />
<br />
* "Luminescence" -- [TO DO - BEN?]<br />
<br />
* "Ideologies of adoption" -- [TO DO - ALEX?]<br />
<br />
* "Text / Paratext" -- [TO DO]<br />
<br />
= Background =<br />
<br />
Some entries in the archive are drawn from the [http://www.deadmedia.org Dead Media Project], an email list devoted to the topic started by [http://www.well.com/conf/mirrorshades Bruce Sterling] and more recently moderated by Tom Jennings. The email list is now dead.<br />
<br />
= Links = <br />
<br />
[http://www.experimentaljetset.nl/lostformats/01.html Lost formats] <br />
<br />
= Special Pages =<br />
<br />
[[:Special:Upload|Upload a File]]<br />
<br />
[[:Special:Allpages|All Pages]]<br />
<br />
[[:Special:Imagelist|All Uploaded Files]]</div>Torpillehttp://www.cultureandcommunication.org/deadmedia/index.php?title=Secretarial_Letter_Dictation&diff=5987Secretarial Letter Dictation2008-11-12T18:25:25Z<p>Torpille: /* Letter dictation in pop culture */</p>
<hr />
<div>== Basics of secretarial positions ==<br />
<br />
Secretarial work, in one form or another, has existed since writing has existed; scribes were the first incarnation, followed by clerks. With the commercialization of the typewriter in the late 1800s and their adoption in the 1900s, record-keeping and composition became increasingly integral to modern businesess and organizations. Originally, most outgoing business correspondence was handled by business owners and a hired clerk, and was usually handwritten (Yates 25). This was an incredibly time consuming, laborious process, and made record keeping confusing, as all incoming and outgoing communication was hand copied so it was impractical to keep more than one comprehensive book of correspondence (Yates 38). Speedwriting and stenography along with typing skills sped up the process of bureaucracy and were delegated to women, particularly young women, in the 1900s. <br />
<br />
The origins of the word secretary are generally agreed to be related to secret-keeping and trust. According to Edward Jones Kilduff, the word secretary "has its origin in common with the word secret, for both are derived from the Latin word secretus, which means private, secret, or pertaining to private or secret matters. Hence came the general definition of secretary as a person who is intrusted with private or secret matters; a confidential officer or attendant; a confidant" (Kilduff 3).<br />
<br />
== Secretary as mediums ==<br />
<br />
In a sense, secretarial work is a kind of 'medium' in and of itself. Secretaries receive communications from all types of sources; it is up to the secretary to determine which communications are the most pressing, and which do not deserve attention, and forward the important communications to the boss. Communications between businesses, especially letters, were not usually written by the businesspeople themselves--rather, the businessperson would speak (dictate) what was in the letter while the secretary/stenographer would write in shorthand what her supervisor dictated, and then type the letter on a typewriter with correct 'form,' meaning correcting any grammatical errors, formatting, spelling, detail work, etc. Essentially mail communications would go from a businessman to his secretary to another secretary to the businessman she represented. This was also true of phone calls and visitors: all communications had to pass through the secretary before reaching the intended recipient.<br />
<br />
Secretaries themselves still exist, but their duties have changed drastically due to email communications, word processing, and various other technologies. Letter dictation in particular is now incredibly rare, perhaps because of the common use of word processing technologies which drastically reduce the time needed to compose documents. Like the demise of the scribe due to increased literacy and printing, the stenographic duties of the secretary have diminished due to computing technologies. However, stenographers (using stenographic typewriters) are still in use in the legal system alongside voice-to-speech technology in case of computer failure.<br />
<br />
== Stenography in secretarial duties ==<br />
<br />
Stenography, or the practice of transcribing spoken word, was essential to the duties of a secretary, and a fast speed (usually of 100 words per minute), was desirable. "Except in the instances of college graduates, of persons who have received a specialized training in secretarial work, and of those who posess some exceptional qualification (a knowledge of financial matters or the ability to write well, for example), it is very difficult to obtain a position as a real private secretary without first having served an apprenticeship as a stenographer" (Kilduff 358).<br />
[[Image:gregg.jpg|thumb|left]]<br />
The importance of stenography, and particularly accurate stenography, for the secretary was expressed by George E. Roberts, vice president of National City Bank of New York City, "If my stenographer is not wholly accurate and dependable in transcribing her notes--her share of this mutual work--the effectiveness of my letter suffers. Through carelessness she has made me appear to say things I did not say, she has inclined my reader to the belief that I am ungrammatical, and by her inaccuracies in typing she has caused my letter to make an unfavorable impression. [...] Letter writing is an important function in business, and is becoming of greater importance because of the fact that transactions carried on by means of letters are rapidly increasing in number. The personal contact between a business house and its customers that existed in former years is being supplanted by a contact by letters. And all of this means that we must today make our letters more efficient. To do so we must enlist the coöperation of our stenographers to perform efficiently their share of the work of getting out good letters--letters that are accurate in transcription, correct in spelling, grammar, and punctuation, and pleasing in appearance" (Kilduff 13). This excerpt suggests that secretaries only copied exactly what was written, but frequently part of their duty was to correct wording, phrasing, and grammar, and know all of the correct formats, sort of like what Microsoft Word does with its Paperclip helper.<br />
<br />
Many different types of speedwriting and [[shorthand]] exist, including the Pitman and Graham styles. College courses on shorthand were a popular choice for young women, and considered to be very practical. An example of this is in Sylvia Plath's novel ''The Bell Jar'', in which the Plath-based protagonist Esther's mother encourages Esther to take shorthand instead of trying to be a poet. Esther rejects this, seeing shorthand as a sure way into a subservient lifestyle.<br />
<br />
== The typewriter's role in the growth of the secretary ==<br />
[[Image:typist.jpg|thumb|right|Female typist, 1926 (Yates 40)]]<br />
In 1890, the U.S. Census reported 33,000 people employed as stenographers/typists, and by 1900, there were 134,000 people employed as stenographers, typists, and secretaries. In 1910, that number doubled; and in 1920 doubled again--786,000 secretaries (Yates 43). The typewriter allowed for a massive boom in the amount of women in the workforce: in 1871, only four percent of total commercial (business skills) school was female, and by 1900, that number leaped to 36 percent (Yates 44).<br />
<br />
Before the typewriter, letters were usually drafted and finalized by the composer of the letter--that is to say, the writer (the one who thought up the source of the material) and the writer (the one who performed the physical act of writing) were one in the same. With the advent of the typewriter, the two acts were separated entirely. According to Yates, the typewriter allowed "increasing subdivision of tasks and specialization of jobs, with the techniques of systematic management to coordinate the various specialized elements" in order to maximize efficiency. The typewriter further reduced the amount of time spent by highly paid executives on letter-writing, instead moving that task to lesser-paid secretarial workers (44). <br />
<br />
With the popularization of personal computers and word processing, this separation of composing and typing has again merged, as executives can easily write their own letters and internal communication is done increasingly through e-mail.<br />
<br />
== Secretary as extension of self ==<br />
<br />
What is particularly interesting about the secretary as a medium was the focus on her appearances, or 'poise.' While secretarial handbooks emphasize fast typing and shorthand skills along with organizational skills, each book has lengthly sections on the presentation of a secretary. As is expected, secretaries had dress requirements like we do today in offices, but even more requests on the attributes of secretaries were made. For example, a desired quality among secretaries was a pleasing voice, and to smile. Becker encourages secretaries to be 'phonogeninc' while on the telephone, at least until "television becomes a practical commercial reality" for telecommunications (73). Particular posture was requested--"Draping yourself about furniture, or leaning against files or doors as if they were lampposts is similarly condemned" (Becker 106)--and only pale nailpolish acceptable. One secretary recommends wearing blue frequently, as "[m]en almost universally like blue" (103). <br />
<br />
Manners were also essential, and women were thought to be much better at mannered speech and behavior than men, and more adept at being 'channels.' Edward Kilduff explains, "In so far as any general statement can be true, male secretaries are more likely not to possess suitable manners than are female secretaries; perhaps because it is man's nature to be more unrestrained and more independent than women, perhaps because men are not so sensitive to the effects of manners as women are and hence do not appreciate their value." Men, essentially, made bad mediums because they are too independent, more productive, and more creative than women.<br />
<br />
The work a secretary did, particularly letters, were not signed by secretaries but rather bosses, and it was important that they and their work was reflective of their employers. The secretary, ideally, was to be involved, but not necessarily thought of as a 'producer' of content--only visible as an extension rather than authority: "Letters are an expression of an executive's personality. Don't you, as a secretary, quickly spot any flaws that come to your employer's desk? Don't you judge other secretaries and their employers by the kind of letters they mail from their offices?" (Becker 11)<br />
<br />
The ideal secretary was one who was trustworthy with private data, efficient, reliable, and attractive. She, as one employer describes in ''Secretaries Who Succeed'', served as "an extension of my own brain" (37). This sentiment has been echoed in the present with new technologies such as the iPhone, Blackberries, and laptops--all of which similarly serve as both status symbols, secret-keepers, transmitters of data, and as extensions of one's consciousness.<br />
<br />
== Letter dictation in pop culture ==<br />
<br />
In ''Monty Python's Flying Circus'' episode 33 (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hf0FFAFqle8) letter dictation is parodied. Biggles dictates a letter to his secretary, who is confused as to exactly what words to transcribe in this exchange:<br />
[[Image:biggles.jpg|thumb|right|Biggles puts on antlers to indicate he is not dictating]]<br />
<br />
<br />
'''Biggles.''' Just put down what I say.<br />
<br />
'''Secretary.''' Do I put that down?<br />
<br />
'''Biggles.''' Of course you don't put that down.<br />
<br />
'''Secretary.''' Well what about that?<br />
<br />
'''Biggles.''' Look. Don't put that down. Just put down - wait a mo - wait a mo. (puts on his antlers) Now, when I've got these antlers on - when I've got these antlers on I am dictating and when I take them off (takes antlers off) I am not dictating.<br />
<br />
'''Secretary.''' (types) I am not dictating.<br />
<br />
'''Biggles.''' What? (puts the antlers on) Read that back.<br />
<br />
'''Secretary.''' Dear King Haakon, I am not dictating what?<br />
<br />
'''Biggles.''' No, no, no, you loopy brothel inmate.<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<br />
Becker, Esther R. ''Secretaries Who Succeed''. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1947.<br />
<br />
Charters, W. W. and Isadore B. Whitley. ''Summary of Report on Analysis of Secretarial Duties and Traits.'' New York: The National Junior Personell Service, Inc., 1924.<br />
<br />
Doutt, Howard M. ''Secretarial Science''. Chicago: Richard D. Irwin, Inc., 1944.<br />
<br />
"Episode 33." ''Monty Python's Flying Circus.'' BBC. 30 Nov 1972.<br />
<br />
Kilduff, Edward Jones. ''The Private Secretary''. New York: D. Appleton-Century Company, 1924.<br />
<br />
Pitman, Isaac. ''New Standard Dictation Course.'' New York: Pittman & Sons, 1933.<br />
<br />
Yates, JoAnne. ''Control Through Communication.'' Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989.</div>Torpillehttp://www.cultureandcommunication.org/deadmedia/index.php?title=Secretarial_Letter_Dictation&diff=5986Secretarial Letter Dictation2008-11-12T18:24:58Z<p>Torpille: /* Letter dictation in pop culture */</p>
<hr />
<div>== Basics of secretarial positions ==<br />
<br />
Secretarial work, in one form or another, has existed since writing has existed; scribes were the first incarnation, followed by clerks. With the commercialization of the typewriter in the late 1800s and their adoption in the 1900s, record-keeping and composition became increasingly integral to modern businesess and organizations. Originally, most outgoing business correspondence was handled by business owners and a hired clerk, and was usually handwritten (Yates 25). This was an incredibly time consuming, laborious process, and made record keeping confusing, as all incoming and outgoing communication was hand copied so it was impractical to keep more than one comprehensive book of correspondence (Yates 38). Speedwriting and stenography along with typing skills sped up the process of bureaucracy and were delegated to women, particularly young women, in the 1900s. <br />
<br />
The origins of the word secretary are generally agreed to be related to secret-keeping and trust. According to Edward Jones Kilduff, the word secretary "has its origin in common with the word secret, for both are derived from the Latin word secretus, which means private, secret, or pertaining to private or secret matters. Hence came the general definition of secretary as a person who is intrusted with private or secret matters; a confidential officer or attendant; a confidant" (Kilduff 3).<br />
<br />
== Secretary as mediums ==<br />
<br />
In a sense, secretarial work is a kind of 'medium' in and of itself. Secretaries receive communications from all types of sources; it is up to the secretary to determine which communications are the most pressing, and which do not deserve attention, and forward the important communications to the boss. Communications between businesses, especially letters, were not usually written by the businesspeople themselves--rather, the businessperson would speak (dictate) what was in the letter while the secretary/stenographer would write in shorthand what her supervisor dictated, and then type the letter on a typewriter with correct 'form,' meaning correcting any grammatical errors, formatting, spelling, detail work, etc. Essentially mail communications would go from a businessman to his secretary to another secretary to the businessman she represented. This was also true of phone calls and visitors: all communications had to pass through the secretary before reaching the intended recipient.<br />
<br />
Secretaries themselves still exist, but their duties have changed drastically due to email communications, word processing, and various other technologies. Letter dictation in particular is now incredibly rare, perhaps because of the common use of word processing technologies which drastically reduce the time needed to compose documents. Like the demise of the scribe due to increased literacy and printing, the stenographic duties of the secretary have diminished due to computing technologies. However, stenographers (using stenographic typewriters) are still in use in the legal system alongside voice-to-speech technology in case of computer failure.<br />
<br />
== Stenography in secretarial duties ==<br />
<br />
Stenography, or the practice of transcribing spoken word, was essential to the duties of a secretary, and a fast speed (usually of 100 words per minute), was desirable. "Except in the instances of college graduates, of persons who have received a specialized training in secretarial work, and of those who posess some exceptional qualification (a knowledge of financial matters or the ability to write well, for example), it is very difficult to obtain a position as a real private secretary without first having served an apprenticeship as a stenographer" (Kilduff 358).<br />
[[Image:gregg.jpg|thumb|left]]<br />
The importance of stenography, and particularly accurate stenography, for the secretary was expressed by George E. Roberts, vice president of National City Bank of New York City, "If my stenographer is not wholly accurate and dependable in transcribing her notes--her share of this mutual work--the effectiveness of my letter suffers. Through carelessness she has made me appear to say things I did not say, she has inclined my reader to the belief that I am ungrammatical, and by her inaccuracies in typing she has caused my letter to make an unfavorable impression. [...] Letter writing is an important function in business, and is becoming of greater importance because of the fact that transactions carried on by means of letters are rapidly increasing in number. The personal contact between a business house and its customers that existed in former years is being supplanted by a contact by letters. And all of this means that we must today make our letters more efficient. To do so we must enlist the coöperation of our stenographers to perform efficiently their share of the work of getting out good letters--letters that are accurate in transcription, correct in spelling, grammar, and punctuation, and pleasing in appearance" (Kilduff 13). This excerpt suggests that secretaries only copied exactly what was written, but frequently part of their duty was to correct wording, phrasing, and grammar, and know all of the correct formats, sort of like what Microsoft Word does with its Paperclip helper.<br />
<br />
Many different types of speedwriting and [[shorthand]] exist, including the Pitman and Graham styles. College courses on shorthand were a popular choice for young women, and considered to be very practical. An example of this is in Sylvia Plath's novel ''The Bell Jar'', in which the Plath-based protagonist Esther's mother encourages Esther to take shorthand instead of trying to be a poet. Esther rejects this, seeing shorthand as a sure way into a subservient lifestyle.<br />
<br />
== The typewriter's role in the growth of the secretary ==<br />
[[Image:typist.jpg|thumb|right|Female typist, 1926 (Yates 40)]]<br />
In 1890, the U.S. Census reported 33,000 people employed as stenographers/typists, and by 1900, there were 134,000 people employed as stenographers, typists, and secretaries. In 1910, that number doubled; and in 1920 doubled again--786,000 secretaries (Yates 43). The typewriter allowed for a massive boom in the amount of women in the workforce: in 1871, only four percent of total commercial (business skills) school was female, and by 1900, that number leaped to 36 percent (Yates 44).<br />
<br />
Before the typewriter, letters were usually drafted and finalized by the composer of the letter--that is to say, the writer (the one who thought up the source of the material) and the writer (the one who performed the physical act of writing) were one in the same. With the advent of the typewriter, the two acts were separated entirely. According to Yates, the typewriter allowed "increasing subdivision of tasks and specialization of jobs, with the techniques of systematic management to coordinate the various specialized elements" in order to maximize efficiency. The typewriter further reduced the amount of time spent by highly paid executives on letter-writing, instead moving that task to lesser-paid secretarial workers (44). <br />
<br />
With the popularization of personal computers and word processing, this separation of composing and typing has again merged, as executives can easily write their own letters and internal communication is done increasingly through e-mail.<br />
<br />
== Secretary as extension of self ==<br />
<br />
What is particularly interesting about the secretary as a medium was the focus on her appearances, or 'poise.' While secretarial handbooks emphasize fast typing and shorthand skills along with organizational skills, each book has lengthly sections on the presentation of a secretary. As is expected, secretaries had dress requirements like we do today in offices, but even more requests on the attributes of secretaries were made. For example, a desired quality among secretaries was a pleasing voice, and to smile. Becker encourages secretaries to be 'phonogeninc' while on the telephone, at least until "television becomes a practical commercial reality" for telecommunications (73). Particular posture was requested--"Draping yourself about furniture, or leaning against files or doors as if they were lampposts is similarly condemned" (Becker 106)--and only pale nailpolish acceptable. One secretary recommends wearing blue frequently, as "[m]en almost universally like blue" (103). <br />
<br />
Manners were also essential, and women were thought to be much better at mannered speech and behavior than men, and more adept at being 'channels.' Edward Kilduff explains, "In so far as any general statement can be true, male secretaries are more likely not to possess suitable manners than are female secretaries; perhaps because it is man's nature to be more unrestrained and more independent than women, perhaps because men are not so sensitive to the effects of manners as women are and hence do not appreciate their value." Men, essentially, made bad mediums because they are too independent, more productive, and more creative than women.<br />
<br />
The work a secretary did, particularly letters, were not signed by secretaries but rather bosses, and it was important that they and their work was reflective of their employers. The secretary, ideally, was to be involved, but not necessarily thought of as a 'producer' of content--only visible as an extension rather than authority: "Letters are an expression of an executive's personality. Don't you, as a secretary, quickly spot any flaws that come to your employer's desk? Don't you judge other secretaries and their employers by the kind of letters they mail from their offices?" (Becker 11)<br />
<br />
The ideal secretary was one who was trustworthy with private data, efficient, reliable, and attractive. She, as one employer describes in ''Secretaries Who Succeed'', served as "an extension of my own brain" (37). This sentiment has been echoed in the present with new technologies such as the iPhone, Blackberries, and laptops--all of which similarly serve as both status symbols, secret-keepers, transmitters of data, and as extensions of one's consciousness.<br />
<br />
== Letter dictation in pop culture ==<br />
<br />
In ''Monty Python's Flying Circus'' episode 33 (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hf0FFAFqle8) letter dictation is parodied. Biggles dictates a letter to his secretary, who is confused as to exactly what words to transcribe in this exchange:<br />
[[Image:biggles.jpg|thumb|right|Biggles puts on antlers to indicate he is not dictating]]<br />
<br />
'''Secretary.''' Of Norway, is that?<br />
<br />
'''Biggles.''' Just put down what I say.<br />
<br />
'''Secretary.''' Do I put that down?<br />
<br />
'''Biggles.''' Of course you don't put that down.<br />
<br />
'''Secretary.''' Well what about that?<br />
<br />
'''Biggles.''' Look. Don't put that down. Just put down - wait a mo - wait a mo. (puts on his antlers) Now, when I've got these antlers on - when I've got these antlers on I am dictating and when I take them off (takes antlers off) I am not dictating.<br />
<br />
'''Secretary.''' (types) I am not dictating.<br />
<br />
'''Biggles.''' What? (puts the antlers on) Read that back.<br />
<br />
'''Secretary.''' Dear King Haakon, I am not dictating what?<br />
<br />
'''Biggles.''' No, no, no, you loopy brothel inmate.<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<br />
Becker, Esther R. ''Secretaries Who Succeed''. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1947.<br />
<br />
Charters, W. W. and Isadore B. Whitley. ''Summary of Report on Analysis of Secretarial Duties and Traits.'' New York: The National Junior Personell Service, Inc., 1924.<br />
<br />
Doutt, Howard M. ''Secretarial Science''. Chicago: Richard D. Irwin, Inc., 1944.<br />
<br />
"Episode 33." ''Monty Python's Flying Circus.'' BBC. 30 Nov 1972.<br />
<br />
Kilduff, Edward Jones. ''The Private Secretary''. New York: D. Appleton-Century Company, 1924.<br />
<br />
Pitman, Isaac. ''New Standard Dictation Course.'' New York: Pittman & Sons, 1933.<br />
<br />
Yates, JoAnne. ''Control Through Communication.'' Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989.</div>Torpillehttp://www.cultureandcommunication.org/deadmedia/index.php?title=Secretarial_Letter_Dictation&diff=5985Secretarial Letter Dictation2008-11-12T18:23:24Z<p>Torpille: /* Letter dictation in pop culture */</p>
<hr />
<div>== Basics of secretarial positions ==<br />
<br />
Secretarial work, in one form or another, has existed since writing has existed; scribes were the first incarnation, followed by clerks. With the commercialization of the typewriter in the late 1800s and their adoption in the 1900s, record-keeping and composition became increasingly integral to modern businesess and organizations. Originally, most outgoing business correspondence was handled by business owners and a hired clerk, and was usually handwritten (Yates 25). This was an incredibly time consuming, laborious process, and made record keeping confusing, as all incoming and outgoing communication was hand copied so it was impractical to keep more than one comprehensive book of correspondence (Yates 38). Speedwriting and stenography along with typing skills sped up the process of bureaucracy and were delegated to women, particularly young women, in the 1900s. <br />
<br />
The origins of the word secretary are generally agreed to be related to secret-keeping and trust. According to Edward Jones Kilduff, the word secretary "has its origin in common with the word secret, for both are derived from the Latin word secretus, which means private, secret, or pertaining to private or secret matters. Hence came the general definition of secretary as a person who is intrusted with private or secret matters; a confidential officer or attendant; a confidant" (Kilduff 3).<br />
<br />
== Secretary as mediums ==<br />
<br />
In a sense, secretarial work is a kind of 'medium' in and of itself. Secretaries receive communications from all types of sources; it is up to the secretary to determine which communications are the most pressing, and which do not deserve attention, and forward the important communications to the boss. Communications between businesses, especially letters, were not usually written by the businesspeople themselves--rather, the businessperson would speak (dictate) what was in the letter while the secretary/stenographer would write in shorthand what her supervisor dictated, and then type the letter on a typewriter with correct 'form,' meaning correcting any grammatical errors, formatting, spelling, detail work, etc. Essentially mail communications would go from a businessman to his secretary to another secretary to the businessman she represented. This was also true of phone calls and visitors: all communications had to pass through the secretary before reaching the intended recipient.<br />
<br />
Secretaries themselves still exist, but their duties have changed drastically due to email communications, word processing, and various other technologies. Letter dictation in particular is now incredibly rare, perhaps because of the common use of word processing technologies which drastically reduce the time needed to compose documents. Like the demise of the scribe due to increased literacy and printing, the stenographic duties of the secretary have diminished due to computing technologies. However, stenographers (using stenographic typewriters) are still in use in the legal system alongside voice-to-speech technology in case of computer failure.<br />
<br />
== Stenography in secretarial duties ==<br />
<br />
Stenography, or the practice of transcribing spoken word, was essential to the duties of a secretary, and a fast speed (usually of 100 words per minute), was desirable. "Except in the instances of college graduates, of persons who have received a specialized training in secretarial work, and of those who posess some exceptional qualification (a knowledge of financial matters or the ability to write well, for example), it is very difficult to obtain a position as a real private secretary without first having served an apprenticeship as a stenographer" (Kilduff 358).<br />
[[Image:gregg.jpg|thumb|left]]<br />
The importance of stenography, and particularly accurate stenography, for the secretary was expressed by George E. Roberts, vice president of National City Bank of New York City, "If my stenographer is not wholly accurate and dependable in transcribing her notes--her share of this mutual work--the effectiveness of my letter suffers. Through carelessness she has made me appear to say things I did not say, she has inclined my reader to the belief that I am ungrammatical, and by her inaccuracies in typing she has caused my letter to make an unfavorable impression. [...] Letter writing is an important function in business, and is becoming of greater importance because of the fact that transactions carried on by means of letters are rapidly increasing in number. The personal contact between a business house and its customers that existed in former years is being supplanted by a contact by letters. And all of this means that we must today make our letters more efficient. To do so we must enlist the coöperation of our stenographers to perform efficiently their share of the work of getting out good letters--letters that are accurate in transcription, correct in spelling, grammar, and punctuation, and pleasing in appearance" (Kilduff 13). This excerpt suggests that secretaries only copied exactly what was written, but frequently part of their duty was to correct wording, phrasing, and grammar, and know all of the correct formats, sort of like what Microsoft Word does with its Paperclip helper.<br />
<br />
Many different types of speedwriting and [[shorthand]] exist, including the Pitman and Graham styles. College courses on shorthand were a popular choice for young women, and considered to be very practical. An example of this is in Sylvia Plath's novel ''The Bell Jar'', in which the Plath-based protagonist Esther's mother encourages Esther to take shorthand instead of trying to be a poet. Esther rejects this, seeing shorthand as a sure way into a subservient lifestyle.<br />
<br />
== The typewriter's role in the growth of the secretary ==<br />
[[Image:typist.jpg|thumb|right|Female typist, 1926 (Yates 40)]]<br />
In 1890, the U.S. Census reported 33,000 people employed as stenographers/typists, and by 1900, there were 134,000 people employed as stenographers, typists, and secretaries. In 1910, that number doubled; and in 1920 doubled again--786,000 secretaries (Yates 43). The typewriter allowed for a massive boom in the amount of women in the workforce: in 1871, only four percent of total commercial (business skills) school was female, and by 1900, that number leaped to 36 percent (Yates 44).<br />
<br />
Before the typewriter, letters were usually drafted and finalized by the composer of the letter--that is to say, the writer (the one who thought up the source of the material) and the writer (the one who performed the physical act of writing) were one in the same. With the advent of the typewriter, the two acts were separated entirely. According to Yates, the typewriter allowed "increasing subdivision of tasks and specialization of jobs, with the techniques of systematic management to coordinate the various specialized elements" in order to maximize efficiency. The typewriter further reduced the amount of time spent by highly paid executives on letter-writing, instead moving that task to lesser-paid secretarial workers (44). <br />
<br />
With the popularization of personal computers and word processing, this separation of composing and typing has again merged, as executives can easily write their own letters and internal communication is done increasingly through e-mail.<br />
<br />
== Secretary as extension of self ==<br />
<br />
What is particularly interesting about the secretary as a medium was the focus on her appearances, or 'poise.' While secretarial handbooks emphasize fast typing and shorthand skills along with organizational skills, each book has lengthly sections on the presentation of a secretary. As is expected, secretaries had dress requirements like we do today in offices, but even more requests on the attributes of secretaries were made. For example, a desired quality among secretaries was a pleasing voice, and to smile. Becker encourages secretaries to be 'phonogeninc' while on the telephone, at least until "television becomes a practical commercial reality" for telecommunications (73). Particular posture was requested--"Draping yourself about furniture, or leaning against files or doors as if they were lampposts is similarly condemned" (Becker 106)--and only pale nailpolish acceptable. One secretary recommends wearing blue frequently, as "[m]en almost universally like blue" (103). <br />
<br />
Manners were also essential, and women were thought to be much better at mannered speech and behavior than men, and more adept at being 'channels.' Edward Kilduff explains, "In so far as any general statement can be true, male secretaries are more likely not to possess suitable manners than are female secretaries; perhaps because it is man's nature to be more unrestrained and more independent than women, perhaps because men are not so sensitive to the effects of manners as women are and hence do not appreciate their value." Men, essentially, made bad mediums because they are too independent, more productive, and more creative than women.<br />
<br />
The work a secretary did, particularly letters, were not signed by secretaries but rather bosses, and it was important that they and their work was reflective of their employers. The secretary, ideally, was to be involved, but not necessarily thought of as a 'producer' of content--only visible as an extension rather than authority: "Letters are an expression of an executive's personality. Don't you, as a secretary, quickly spot any flaws that come to your employer's desk? Don't you judge other secretaries and their employers by the kind of letters they mail from their offices?" (Becker 11)<br />
<br />
The ideal secretary was one who was trustworthy with private data, efficient, reliable, and attractive. She, as one employer describes in ''Secretaries Who Succeed'', served as "an extension of my own brain" (37). This sentiment has been echoed in the present with new technologies such as the iPhone, Blackberries, and laptops--all of which similarly serve as both status symbols, secret-keepers, transmitters of data, and as extensions of one's consciousness.<br />
<br />
== Letter dictation in pop culture ==<br />
<br />
In ''Monty Python's Flying Circus'' episode 33 (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hf0FFAFqle8) letter dictation is parodied. Biggles dictates a letter to his secretary, who is confused as to exactly what words to transcribe in this exchange:<br />
[[Image:biggles.jpg|thumb|right|Biggles puts on antlers to indicate he is not dictating]]<br />
<br />
'''Secretary.''' Of Norway, is that?<br />
<br />
'''Biggles.''' Just put down what I say.<br />
<br />
'''Secretary.''' Do I put that down?<br />
<br />
'''Biggles.''' Of course you don't put that down.<br />
<br />
'''Secretary.''' Well what about that?<br />
<br />
'''Biggles.''' Look. (she types) Don't put that down. Just put down - wait a mo - wait a mo. (puts on antlers) Now, when I've got these antlers on - when I've got these antlers on I am dictating and when I take them off (takes them off) I am not dictating.<br />
<br />
'''Secretary.''' (types) I am not dictating.<br />
<br />
'''Biggles.''' What? (she types; puts the antlers on) Read that back.<br />
<br />
'''Secretary.''' Dear King Haakon, I am not dictating what?<br />
<br />
'''Biggles.''' No, no, no, you loopy brothel inmate.<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<br />
Becker, Esther R. ''Secretaries Who Succeed''. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1947.<br />
<br />
Charters, W. W. and Isadore B. Whitley. ''Summary of Report on Analysis of Secretarial Duties and Traits.'' New York: The National Junior Personell Service, Inc., 1924.<br />
<br />
Doutt, Howard M. ''Secretarial Science''. Chicago: Richard D. Irwin, Inc., 1944.<br />
<br />
"Episode 33." ''Monty Python's Flying Circus.'' BBC. 30 Nov 1972.<br />
<br />
Kilduff, Edward Jones. ''The Private Secretary''. New York: D. Appleton-Century Company, 1924.<br />
<br />
Pitman, Isaac. ''New Standard Dictation Course.'' New York: Pittman & Sons, 1933.<br />
<br />
Yates, JoAnne. ''Control Through Communication.'' Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989.</div>Torpillehttp://www.cultureandcommunication.org/deadmedia/index.php?title=Secretarial_Letter_Dictation&diff=5984Secretarial Letter Dictation2008-11-12T18:14:07Z<p>Torpille: /* Stenography in secretarial duties */</p>
<hr />
<div>== Basics of secretarial positions ==<br />
<br />
Secretarial work, in one form or another, has existed since writing has existed; scribes were the first incarnation, followed by clerks. With the commercialization of the typewriter in the late 1800s and their adoption in the 1900s, record-keeping and composition became increasingly integral to modern businesess and organizations. Originally, most outgoing business correspondence was handled by business owners and a hired clerk, and was usually handwritten (Yates 25). This was an incredibly time consuming, laborious process, and made record keeping confusing, as all incoming and outgoing communication was hand copied so it was impractical to keep more than one comprehensive book of correspondence (Yates 38). Speedwriting and stenography along with typing skills sped up the process of bureaucracy and were delegated to women, particularly young women, in the 1900s. <br />
<br />
The origins of the word secretary are generally agreed to be related to secret-keeping and trust. According to Edward Jones Kilduff, the word secretary "has its origin in common with the word secret, for both are derived from the Latin word secretus, which means private, secret, or pertaining to private or secret matters. Hence came the general definition of secretary as a person who is intrusted with private or secret matters; a confidential officer or attendant; a confidant" (Kilduff 3).<br />
<br />
== Secretary as mediums ==<br />
<br />
In a sense, secretarial work is a kind of 'medium' in and of itself. Secretaries receive communications from all types of sources; it is up to the secretary to determine which communications are the most pressing, and which do not deserve attention, and forward the important communications to the boss. Communications between businesses, especially letters, were not usually written by the businesspeople themselves--rather, the businessperson would speak (dictate) what was in the letter while the secretary/stenographer would write in shorthand what her supervisor dictated, and then type the letter on a typewriter with correct 'form,' meaning correcting any grammatical errors, formatting, spelling, detail work, etc. Essentially mail communications would go from a businessman to his secretary to another secretary to the businessman she represented. This was also true of phone calls and visitors: all communications had to pass through the secretary before reaching the intended recipient.<br />
<br />
Secretaries themselves still exist, but their duties have changed drastically due to email communications, word processing, and various other technologies. Letter dictation in particular is now incredibly rare, perhaps because of the common use of word processing technologies which drastically reduce the time needed to compose documents. Like the demise of the scribe due to increased literacy and printing, the stenographic duties of the secretary have diminished due to computing technologies. However, stenographers (using stenographic typewriters) are still in use in the legal system alongside voice-to-speech technology in case of computer failure.<br />
<br />
== Stenography in secretarial duties ==<br />
<br />
Stenography, or the practice of transcribing spoken word, was essential to the duties of a secretary, and a fast speed (usually of 100 words per minute), was desirable. "Except in the instances of college graduates, of persons who have received a specialized training in secretarial work, and of those who posess some exceptional qualification (a knowledge of financial matters or the ability to write well, for example), it is very difficult to obtain a position as a real private secretary without first having served an apprenticeship as a stenographer" (Kilduff 358).<br />
[[Image:gregg.jpg|thumb|left]]<br />
The importance of stenography, and particularly accurate stenography, for the secretary was expressed by George E. Roberts, vice president of National City Bank of New York City, "If my stenographer is not wholly accurate and dependable in transcribing her notes--her share of this mutual work--the effectiveness of my letter suffers. Through carelessness she has made me appear to say things I did not say, she has inclined my reader to the belief that I am ungrammatical, and by her inaccuracies in typing she has caused my letter to make an unfavorable impression. [...] Letter writing is an important function in business, and is becoming of greater importance because of the fact that transactions carried on by means of letters are rapidly increasing in number. The personal contact between a business house and its customers that existed in former years is being supplanted by a contact by letters. And all of this means that we must today make our letters more efficient. To do so we must enlist the coöperation of our stenographers to perform efficiently their share of the work of getting out good letters--letters that are accurate in transcription, correct in spelling, grammar, and punctuation, and pleasing in appearance" (Kilduff 13). This excerpt suggests that secretaries only copied exactly what was written, but frequently part of their duty was to correct wording, phrasing, and grammar, and know all of the correct formats, sort of like what Microsoft Word does with its Paperclip helper.<br />
<br />
Many different types of speedwriting and [[shorthand]] exist, including the Pitman and Graham styles. College courses on shorthand were a popular choice for young women, and considered to be very practical. An example of this is in Sylvia Plath's novel ''The Bell Jar'', in which the Plath-based protagonist Esther's mother encourages Esther to take shorthand instead of trying to be a poet. Esther rejects this, seeing shorthand as a sure way into a subservient lifestyle.<br />
<br />
== The typewriter's role in the growth of the secretary ==<br />
[[Image:typist.jpg|thumb|right|Female typist, 1926 (Yates 40)]]<br />
In 1890, the U.S. Census reported 33,000 people employed as stenographers/typists, and by 1900, there were 134,000 people employed as stenographers, typists, and secretaries. In 1910, that number doubled; and in 1920 doubled again--786,000 secretaries (Yates 43). The typewriter allowed for a massive boom in the amount of women in the workforce: in 1871, only four percent of total commercial (business skills) school was female, and by 1900, that number leaped to 36 percent (Yates 44).<br />
<br />
Before the typewriter, letters were usually drafted and finalized by the composer of the letter--that is to say, the writer (the one who thought up the source of the material) and the writer (the one who performed the physical act of writing) were one in the same. With the advent of the typewriter, the two acts were separated entirely. According to Yates, the typewriter allowed "increasing subdivision of tasks and specialization of jobs, with the techniques of systematic management to coordinate the various specialized elements" in order to maximize efficiency. The typewriter further reduced the amount of time spent by highly paid executives on letter-writing, instead moving that task to lesser-paid secretarial workers (44). <br />
<br />
With the popularization of personal computers and word processing, this separation of composing and typing has again merged, as executives can easily write their own letters and internal communication is done increasingly through e-mail.<br />
<br />
== Secretary as extension of self ==<br />
<br />
What is particularly interesting about the secretary as a medium was the focus on her appearances, or 'poise.' While secretarial handbooks emphasize fast typing and shorthand skills along with organizational skills, each book has lengthly sections on the presentation of a secretary. As is expected, secretaries had dress requirements like we do today in offices, but even more requests on the attributes of secretaries were made. For example, a desired quality among secretaries was a pleasing voice, and to smile. Becker encourages secretaries to be 'phonogeninc' while on the telephone, at least until "television becomes a practical commercial reality" for telecommunications (73). Particular posture was requested--"Draping yourself about furniture, or leaning against files or doors as if they were lampposts is similarly condemned" (Becker 106)--and only pale nailpolish acceptable. One secretary recommends wearing blue frequently, as "[m]en almost universally like blue" (103). <br />
<br />
Manners were also essential, and women were thought to be much better at mannered speech and behavior than men, and more adept at being 'channels.' Edward Kilduff explains, "In so far as any general statement can be true, male secretaries are more likely not to possess suitable manners than are female secretaries; perhaps because it is man's nature to be more unrestrained and more independent than women, perhaps because men are not so sensitive to the effects of manners as women are and hence do not appreciate their value." Men, essentially, made bad mediums because they are too independent, more productive, and more creative than women.<br />
<br />
The work a secretary did, particularly letters, were not signed by secretaries but rather bosses, and it was important that they and their work was reflective of their employers. The secretary, ideally, was to be involved, but not necessarily thought of as a 'producer' of content--only visible as an extension rather than authority: "Letters are an expression of an executive's personality. Don't you, as a secretary, quickly spot any flaws that come to your employer's desk? Don't you judge other secretaries and their employers by the kind of letters they mail from their offices?" (Becker 11)<br />
<br />
The ideal secretary was one who was trustworthy with private data, efficient, reliable, and attractive. She, as one employer describes in ''Secretaries Who Succeed'', served as "an extension of my own brain" (37). This sentiment has been echoed in the present with new technologies such as the iPhone, Blackberries, and laptops--all of which similarly serve as both status symbols, secret-keepers, transmitters of data, and as extensions of one's consciousness.<br />
<br />
== Letter dictation in pop culture ==<br />
<br />
In ''Monty Python's Flying Circus'' episode 33, <a href=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hf0FFAFqle8>letter dictation is parodied</a>. Biggles dictates a letter to his secretary, who is confused as to exactly what words to transcribe in this exchange:<br />
[[Image:biggles.jpg|thumb|right|Biggles puts on antlers to indicate he is not dictating]]<br />
<br />
'''Secretary.''' Of Norway, is that?<br />
<br />
'''Biggles.''' Just put down what I say.<br />
<br />
'''Secretary.''' Do I put that down?<br />
<br />
'''Biggles.''' Of course you don't put that down.<br />
<br />
'''Secretary.''' Well what about that?<br />
<br />
'''Biggles.''' Look. (she types) Don't put that down. Just put down - wait a mo - wait a mo. (puts on antlers) Now, when I've got these antlers on - when I've got these antlers on I am dictating and when I take them off (takes them off) I am not dictating.<br />
<br />
'''Secretary.''' (types) I am not dictating.<br />
<br />
'''Biggles.''' What? (she types; puts the antlers on) Read that back.<br />
<br />
'''Secretary.''' Dear King Haakon, I am not dictating what?<br />
<br />
'''Biggles.''' No, no, no, you loopy brothel inmate.<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<br />
Becker, Esther R. ''Secretaries Who Succeed''. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1947.<br />
<br />
Charters, W. W. and Isadore B. Whitley. ''Summary of Report on Analysis of Secretarial Duties and Traits.'' New York: The National Junior Personell Service, Inc., 1924.<br />
<br />
Doutt, Howard M. ''Secretarial Science''. Chicago: Richard D. Irwin, Inc., 1944.<br />
<br />
"Episode 33." ''Monty Python's Flying Circus.'' BBC. 30 Nov 1972.<br />
<br />
Kilduff, Edward Jones. ''The Private Secretary''. New York: D. Appleton-Century Company, 1924.<br />
<br />
Pitman, Isaac. ''New Standard Dictation Course.'' New York: Pittman & Sons, 1933.<br />
<br />
Yates, JoAnne. ''Control Through Communication.'' Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989.</div>Torpillehttp://www.cultureandcommunication.org/deadmedia/index.php?title=Secretarial_Letter_Dictation&diff=5983Secretarial Letter Dictation2008-11-12T18:13:17Z<p>Torpille: /* The typewriter's role in the growth of the secretary */</p>
<hr />
<div>== Basics of secretarial positions ==<br />
<br />
Secretarial work, in one form or another, has existed since writing has existed; scribes were the first incarnation, followed by clerks. With the commercialization of the typewriter in the late 1800s and their adoption in the 1900s, record-keeping and composition became increasingly integral to modern businesess and organizations. Originally, most outgoing business correspondence was handled by business owners and a hired clerk, and was usually handwritten (Yates 25). This was an incredibly time consuming, laborious process, and made record keeping confusing, as all incoming and outgoing communication was hand copied so it was impractical to keep more than one comprehensive book of correspondence (Yates 38). Speedwriting and stenography along with typing skills sped up the process of bureaucracy and were delegated to women, particularly young women, in the 1900s. <br />
<br />
The origins of the word secretary are generally agreed to be related to secret-keeping and trust. According to Edward Jones Kilduff, the word secretary "has its origin in common with the word secret, for both are derived from the Latin word secretus, which means private, secret, or pertaining to private or secret matters. Hence came the general definition of secretary as a person who is intrusted with private or secret matters; a confidential officer or attendant; a confidant" (Kilduff 3).<br />
<br />
== Secretary as mediums ==<br />
<br />
In a sense, secretarial work is a kind of 'medium' in and of itself. Secretaries receive communications from all types of sources; it is up to the secretary to determine which communications are the most pressing, and which do not deserve attention, and forward the important communications to the boss. Communications between businesses, especially letters, were not usually written by the businesspeople themselves--rather, the businessperson would speak (dictate) what was in the letter while the secretary/stenographer would write in shorthand what her supervisor dictated, and then type the letter on a typewriter with correct 'form,' meaning correcting any grammatical errors, formatting, spelling, detail work, etc. Essentially mail communications would go from a businessman to his secretary to another secretary to the businessman she represented. This was also true of phone calls and visitors: all communications had to pass through the secretary before reaching the intended recipient.<br />
<br />
Secretaries themselves still exist, but their duties have changed drastically due to email communications, word processing, and various other technologies. Letter dictation in particular is now incredibly rare, perhaps because of the common use of word processing technologies which drastically reduce the time needed to compose documents. Like the demise of the scribe due to increased literacy and printing, the stenographic duties of the secretary have diminished due to computing technologies. However, stenographers (using stenographic typewriters) are still in use in the legal system alongside voice-to-speech technology in case of computer failure.<br />
<br />
== Stenography in secretarial duties ==<br />
<br />
Stenography, or the practice of transcribing spoken word, was essential to the duties of a secretary, and a fast speed (usually of 100 words per minute), was desirable. "Except in the instances of college graduates, of persons who have received a specialized training in secretarial work, and of those who posess some exceptional qualification (a knowledge of financial matters or the ability to write well, for example), it is very difficult to obtain a position as a real private secretary without first having served an apprenticeship as a stenographer" (Kilduff 358).<br />
[[Image:gregg.jpg|thumb|left]]<br />
The importance of stenography, and particularly accurate stenography, for the secretary was expressed by George E. Roberts, vice president of National City Bank of New York City, "If my stenographer is not wholly accurate and dependable in transcribing her notes--her share of this mutual work--the effectiveness of my letter suffers. Through carelessness she has made me appear to say things I did not say, she has inclined my reader to the belief that I am ungrammatical, and by her inaccuracies in typing she has caused my letter to make an unfavorable impression. [...] Letter writing is an important function in business, and is becoming of greater importance because of the fact that transactions carried on by means of letters are rapidly increasing in number. The personal contact between a business house and its customers that existed in former years is being supplanted by a contact by letters. And all of this means that we must today make our letters more efficient. To do so we must enlist the coöperation of our stenographers to perform efficiently their share of the work of getting out good letters--letters that are accurate in transcription, correct in spelling, grammar, and punctuation, and pleasing in appearance" (Kilduff 13). This excerpt suggests that secretaries only copied exactly what was written, but frequently part of their duty was to correct wording, phrasing, and grammar, and know all of the correct formats, sort of like what Microsoft Word does with its Paperclip helper.<br />
<br />
Many different types of speedwriting and shorthand exist, including the Pitman and Graham styles. College courses on shorthand were a popular choice for young women, and considered to be very practical. An example of this is in Sylvia Plath's novel ''The Bell Jar'', in which the Plath-based protagonist Esther's mother encourages Esther to take shorthand instead of trying to be a poet. Esther rejects this, seeing shorthand as a sure way into a subservient lifestyle.<br />
<br />
== The typewriter's role in the growth of the secretary ==<br />
[[Image:typist.jpg|thumb|right|Female typist, 1926 (Yates 40)]]<br />
In 1890, the U.S. Census reported 33,000 people employed as stenographers/typists, and by 1900, there were 134,000 people employed as stenographers, typists, and secretaries. In 1910, that number doubled; and in 1920 doubled again--786,000 secretaries (Yates 43). The typewriter allowed for a massive boom in the amount of women in the workforce: in 1871, only four percent of total commercial (business skills) school was female, and by 1900, that number leaped to 36 percent (Yates 44).<br />
<br />
Before the typewriter, letters were usually drafted and finalized by the composer of the letter--that is to say, the writer (the one who thought up the source of the material) and the writer (the one who performed the physical act of writing) were one in the same. With the advent of the typewriter, the two acts were separated entirely. According to Yates, the typewriter allowed "increasing subdivision of tasks and specialization of jobs, with the techniques of systematic management to coordinate the various specialized elements" in order to maximize efficiency. The typewriter further reduced the amount of time spent by highly paid executives on letter-writing, instead moving that task to lesser-paid secretarial workers (44). <br />
<br />
With the popularization of personal computers and word processing, this separation of composing and typing has again merged, as executives can easily write their own letters and internal communication is done increasingly through e-mail.<br />
<br />
== Secretary as extension of self ==<br />
<br />
What is particularly interesting about the secretary as a medium was the focus on her appearances, or 'poise.' While secretarial handbooks emphasize fast typing and shorthand skills along with organizational skills, each book has lengthly sections on the presentation of a secretary. As is expected, secretaries had dress requirements like we do today in offices, but even more requests on the attributes of secretaries were made. For example, a desired quality among secretaries was a pleasing voice, and to smile. Becker encourages secretaries to be 'phonogeninc' while on the telephone, at least until "television becomes a practical commercial reality" for telecommunications (73). Particular posture was requested--"Draping yourself about furniture, or leaning against files or doors as if they were lampposts is similarly condemned" (Becker 106)--and only pale nailpolish acceptable. One secretary recommends wearing blue frequently, as "[m]en almost universally like blue" (103). <br />
<br />
Manners were also essential, and women were thought to be much better at mannered speech and behavior than men, and more adept at being 'channels.' Edward Kilduff explains, "In so far as any general statement can be true, male secretaries are more likely not to possess suitable manners than are female secretaries; perhaps because it is man's nature to be more unrestrained and more independent than women, perhaps because men are not so sensitive to the effects of manners as women are and hence do not appreciate their value." Men, essentially, made bad mediums because they are too independent, more productive, and more creative than women.<br />
<br />
The work a secretary did, particularly letters, were not signed by secretaries but rather bosses, and it was important that they and their work was reflective of their employers. The secretary, ideally, was to be involved, but not necessarily thought of as a 'producer' of content--only visible as an extension rather than authority: "Letters are an expression of an executive's personality. Don't you, as a secretary, quickly spot any flaws that come to your employer's desk? Don't you judge other secretaries and their employers by the kind of letters they mail from their offices?" (Becker 11)<br />
<br />
The ideal secretary was one who was trustworthy with private data, efficient, reliable, and attractive. She, as one employer describes in ''Secretaries Who Succeed'', served as "an extension of my own brain" (37). This sentiment has been echoed in the present with new technologies such as the iPhone, Blackberries, and laptops--all of which similarly serve as both status symbols, secret-keepers, transmitters of data, and as extensions of one's consciousness.<br />
<br />
== Letter dictation in pop culture ==<br />
<br />
In ''Monty Python's Flying Circus'' episode 33, <a href=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hf0FFAFqle8>letter dictation is parodied</a>. Biggles dictates a letter to his secretary, who is confused as to exactly what words to transcribe in this exchange:<br />
[[Image:biggles.jpg|thumb|right|Biggles puts on antlers to indicate he is not dictating]]<br />
<br />
'''Secretary.''' Of Norway, is that?<br />
<br />
'''Biggles.''' Just put down what I say.<br />
<br />
'''Secretary.''' Do I put that down?<br />
<br />
'''Biggles.''' Of course you don't put that down.<br />
<br />
'''Secretary.''' Well what about that?<br />
<br />
'''Biggles.''' Look. (she types) Don't put that down. Just put down - wait a mo - wait a mo. (puts on antlers) Now, when I've got these antlers on - when I've got these antlers on I am dictating and when I take them off (takes them off) I am not dictating.<br />
<br />
'''Secretary.''' (types) I am not dictating.<br />
<br />
'''Biggles.''' What? (she types; puts the antlers on) Read that back.<br />
<br />
'''Secretary.''' Dear King Haakon, I am not dictating what?<br />
<br />
'''Biggles.''' No, no, no, you loopy brothel inmate.<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<br />
Becker, Esther R. ''Secretaries Who Succeed''. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1947.<br />
<br />
Charters, W. W. and Isadore B. Whitley. ''Summary of Report on Analysis of Secretarial Duties and Traits.'' New York: The National Junior Personell Service, Inc., 1924.<br />
<br />
Doutt, Howard M. ''Secretarial Science''. Chicago: Richard D. Irwin, Inc., 1944.<br />
<br />
"Episode 33." ''Monty Python's Flying Circus.'' BBC. 30 Nov 1972.<br />
<br />
Kilduff, Edward Jones. ''The Private Secretary''. New York: D. Appleton-Century Company, 1924.<br />
<br />
Pitman, Isaac. ''New Standard Dictation Course.'' New York: Pittman & Sons, 1933.<br />
<br />
Yates, JoAnne. ''Control Through Communication.'' Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989.</div>Torpillehttp://www.cultureandcommunication.org/deadmedia/index.php?title=Secretarial_Letter_Dictation&diff=5982Secretarial Letter Dictation2008-11-12T18:12:15Z<p>Torpille: /* The typewriter's role in the growth of the secretary */</p>
<hr />
<div>== Basics of secretarial positions ==<br />
<br />
Secretarial work, in one form or another, has existed since writing has existed; scribes were the first incarnation, followed by clerks. With the commercialization of the typewriter in the late 1800s and their adoption in the 1900s, record-keeping and composition became increasingly integral to modern businesess and organizations. Originally, most outgoing business correspondence was handled by business owners and a hired clerk, and was usually handwritten (Yates 25). This was an incredibly time consuming, laborious process, and made record keeping confusing, as all incoming and outgoing communication was hand copied so it was impractical to keep more than one comprehensive book of correspondence (Yates 38). Speedwriting and stenography along with typing skills sped up the process of bureaucracy and were delegated to women, particularly young women, in the 1900s. <br />
<br />
The origins of the word secretary are generally agreed to be related to secret-keeping and trust. According to Edward Jones Kilduff, the word secretary "has its origin in common with the word secret, for both are derived from the Latin word secretus, which means private, secret, or pertaining to private or secret matters. Hence came the general definition of secretary as a person who is intrusted with private or secret matters; a confidential officer or attendant; a confidant" (Kilduff 3).<br />
<br />
== Secretary as mediums ==<br />
<br />
In a sense, secretarial work is a kind of 'medium' in and of itself. Secretaries receive communications from all types of sources; it is up to the secretary to determine which communications are the most pressing, and which do not deserve attention, and forward the important communications to the boss. Communications between businesses, especially letters, were not usually written by the businesspeople themselves--rather, the businessperson would speak (dictate) what was in the letter while the secretary/stenographer would write in shorthand what her supervisor dictated, and then type the letter on a typewriter with correct 'form,' meaning correcting any grammatical errors, formatting, spelling, detail work, etc. Essentially mail communications would go from a businessman to his secretary to another secretary to the businessman she represented. This was also true of phone calls and visitors: all communications had to pass through the secretary before reaching the intended recipient.<br />
<br />
Secretaries themselves still exist, but their duties have changed drastically due to email communications, word processing, and various other technologies. Letter dictation in particular is now incredibly rare, perhaps because of the common use of word processing technologies which drastically reduce the time needed to compose documents. Like the demise of the scribe due to increased literacy and printing, the stenographic duties of the secretary have diminished due to computing technologies. However, stenographers (using stenographic typewriters) are still in use in the legal system alongside voice-to-speech technology in case of computer failure.<br />
<br />
== Stenography in secretarial duties ==<br />
<br />
Stenography, or the practice of transcribing spoken word, was essential to the duties of a secretary, and a fast speed (usually of 100 words per minute), was desirable. "Except in the instances of college graduates, of persons who have received a specialized training in secretarial work, and of those who posess some exceptional qualification (a knowledge of financial matters or the ability to write well, for example), it is very difficult to obtain a position as a real private secretary without first having served an apprenticeship as a stenographer" (Kilduff 358).<br />
[[Image:gregg.jpg|thumb|left]]<br />
The importance of stenography, and particularly accurate stenography, for the secretary was expressed by George E. Roberts, vice president of National City Bank of New York City, "If my stenographer is not wholly accurate and dependable in transcribing her notes--her share of this mutual work--the effectiveness of my letter suffers. Through carelessness she has made me appear to say things I did not say, she has inclined my reader to the belief that I am ungrammatical, and by her inaccuracies in typing she has caused my letter to make an unfavorable impression. [...] Letter writing is an important function in business, and is becoming of greater importance because of the fact that transactions carried on by means of letters are rapidly increasing in number. The personal contact between a business house and its customers that existed in former years is being supplanted by a contact by letters. And all of this means that we must today make our letters more efficient. To do so we must enlist the coöperation of our stenographers to perform efficiently their share of the work of getting out good letters--letters that are accurate in transcription, correct in spelling, grammar, and punctuation, and pleasing in appearance" (Kilduff 13). This excerpt suggests that secretaries only copied exactly what was written, but frequently part of their duty was to correct wording, phrasing, and grammar, and know all of the correct formats, sort of like what Microsoft Word does with its Paperclip helper.<br />
<br />
Many different types of speedwriting and shorthand exist, including the Pitman and Graham styles. College courses on shorthand were a popular choice for young women, and considered to be very practical. An example of this is in Sylvia Plath's novel ''The Bell Jar'', in which the Plath-based protagonist Esther's mother encourages Esther to take shorthand instead of trying to be a poet. Esther rejects this, seeing shorthand as a sure way into a subservient lifestyle.<br />
<br />
== The typewriter's role in the growth of the secretary ==<br />
[[Image:typist.jpg|thumb|right]]<br />
In 1890, the U.S. Census reported 33,000 people employed as stenographers/typists, and by 1900, there were 134,000 people employed as stenographers, typists, and secretaries. In 1910, that number doubled; and in 1920 doubled again--786,000 secretaries (Yates 43). The typewriter allowed for a massive boom in the amount of women in the workforce: in 1871, only four percent of total commercial (business skills) school was female, and by 1900, that number leaped to 36 percent (Yates 44).<br />
<br />
Before the typewriter, letters were usually drafted and finalized by the composer of the letter--that is to say, the writer (the one who thought up the source of the material) and the writer (the one who performed the physical act of writing) were one in the same. With the advent of the typewriter, the two acts were separated entirely. According to Yates, the typewriter allowed "increasing subdivision of tasks and specialization of jobs, with the techniques of systematic management to coordinate the various specialized elements" in order to maximize efficiency. The typewriter further reduced the amount of time spent by highly paid executives on letter-writing, instead moving that task to lesser-paid secretarial workers (44). <br />
<br />
With the popularization of personal computers and word processing, this separation of composing and typing has again merged, as executives can easily write their own letters and internal communication is done increasingly through e-mail.<br />
<br />
== Secretary as extension of self ==<br />
<br />
What is particularly interesting about the secretary as a medium was the focus on her appearances, or 'poise.' While secretarial handbooks emphasize fast typing and shorthand skills along with organizational skills, each book has lengthly sections on the presentation of a secretary. As is expected, secretaries had dress requirements like we do today in offices, but even more requests on the attributes of secretaries were made. For example, a desired quality among secretaries was a pleasing voice, and to smile. Becker encourages secretaries to be 'phonogeninc' while on the telephone, at least until "television becomes a practical commercial reality" for telecommunications (73). Particular posture was requested--"Draping yourself about furniture, or leaning against files or doors as if they were lampposts is similarly condemned" (Becker 106)--and only pale nailpolish acceptable. One secretary recommends wearing blue frequently, as "[m]en almost universally like blue" (103). <br />
<br />
Manners were also essential, and women were thought to be much better at mannered speech and behavior than men, and more adept at being 'channels.' Edward Kilduff explains, "In so far as any general statement can be true, male secretaries are more likely not to possess suitable manners than are female secretaries; perhaps because it is man's nature to be more unrestrained and more independent than women, perhaps because men are not so sensitive to the effects of manners as women are and hence do not appreciate their value." Men, essentially, made bad mediums because they are too independent, more productive, and more creative than women.<br />
<br />
The work a secretary did, particularly letters, were not signed by secretaries but rather bosses, and it was important that they and their work was reflective of their employers. The secretary, ideally, was to be involved, but not necessarily thought of as a 'producer' of content--only visible as an extension rather than authority: "Letters are an expression of an executive's personality. Don't you, as a secretary, quickly spot any flaws that come to your employer's desk? Don't you judge other secretaries and their employers by the kind of letters they mail from their offices?" (Becker 11)<br />
<br />
The ideal secretary was one who was trustworthy with private data, efficient, reliable, and attractive. She, as one employer describes in ''Secretaries Who Succeed'', served as "an extension of my own brain" (37). This sentiment has been echoed in the present with new technologies such as the iPhone, Blackberries, and laptops--all of which similarly serve as both status symbols, secret-keepers, transmitters of data, and as extensions of one's consciousness.<br />
<br />
== Letter dictation in pop culture ==<br />
<br />
In ''Monty Python's Flying Circus'' episode 33, <a href=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hf0FFAFqle8>letter dictation is parodied</a>. Biggles dictates a letter to his secretary, who is confused as to exactly what words to transcribe in this exchange:<br />
[[Image:biggles.jpg|thumb|right|Biggles puts on antlers to indicate he is not dictating]]<br />
<br />
'''Secretary.''' Of Norway, is that?<br />
<br />
'''Biggles.''' Just put down what I say.<br />
<br />
'''Secretary.''' Do I put that down?<br />
<br />
'''Biggles.''' Of course you don't put that down.<br />
<br />
'''Secretary.''' Well what about that?<br />
<br />
'''Biggles.''' Look. (she types) Don't put that down. Just put down - wait a mo - wait a mo. (puts on antlers) Now, when I've got these antlers on - when I've got these antlers on I am dictating and when I take them off (takes them off) I am not dictating.<br />
<br />
'''Secretary.''' (types) I am not dictating.<br />
<br />
'''Biggles.''' What? (she types; puts the antlers on) Read that back.<br />
<br />
'''Secretary.''' Dear King Haakon, I am not dictating what?<br />
<br />
'''Biggles.''' No, no, no, you loopy brothel inmate.<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<br />
Becker, Esther R. ''Secretaries Who Succeed''. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1947.<br />
<br />
Charters, W. W. and Isadore B. Whitley. ''Summary of Report on Analysis of Secretarial Duties and Traits.'' New York: The National Junior Personell Service, Inc., 1924.<br />
<br />
Doutt, Howard M. ''Secretarial Science''. Chicago: Richard D. Irwin, Inc., 1944.<br />
<br />
"Episode 33." ''Monty Python's Flying Circus.'' BBC. 30 Nov 1972.<br />
<br />
Kilduff, Edward Jones. ''The Private Secretary''. New York: D. Appleton-Century Company, 1924.<br />
<br />
Pitman, Isaac. ''New Standard Dictation Course.'' New York: Pittman & Sons, 1933.<br />
<br />
Yates, JoAnne. ''Control Through Communication.'' Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989.</div>Torpillehttp://www.cultureandcommunication.org/deadmedia/index.php?title=Secretarial_Letter_Dictation&diff=5981Secretarial Letter Dictation2008-11-12T18:11:55Z<p>Torpille: /* The typewriter's role in the growth of the secretary */</p>
<hr />
<div>== Basics of secretarial positions ==<br />
<br />
Secretarial work, in one form or another, has existed since writing has existed; scribes were the first incarnation, followed by clerks. With the commercialization of the typewriter in the late 1800s and their adoption in the 1900s, record-keeping and composition became increasingly integral to modern businesess and organizations. Originally, most outgoing business correspondence was handled by business owners and a hired clerk, and was usually handwritten (Yates 25). This was an incredibly time consuming, laborious process, and made record keeping confusing, as all incoming and outgoing communication was hand copied so it was impractical to keep more than one comprehensive book of correspondence (Yates 38). Speedwriting and stenography along with typing skills sped up the process of bureaucracy and were delegated to women, particularly young women, in the 1900s. <br />
<br />
The origins of the word secretary are generally agreed to be related to secret-keeping and trust. According to Edward Jones Kilduff, the word secretary "has its origin in common with the word secret, for both are derived from the Latin word secretus, which means private, secret, or pertaining to private or secret matters. Hence came the general definition of secretary as a person who is intrusted with private or secret matters; a confidential officer or attendant; a confidant" (Kilduff 3).<br />
<br />
== Secretary as mediums ==<br />
<br />
In a sense, secretarial work is a kind of 'medium' in and of itself. Secretaries receive communications from all types of sources; it is up to the secretary to determine which communications are the most pressing, and which do not deserve attention, and forward the important communications to the boss. Communications between businesses, especially letters, were not usually written by the businesspeople themselves--rather, the businessperson would speak (dictate) what was in the letter while the secretary/stenographer would write in shorthand what her supervisor dictated, and then type the letter on a typewriter with correct 'form,' meaning correcting any grammatical errors, formatting, spelling, detail work, etc. Essentially mail communications would go from a businessman to his secretary to another secretary to the businessman she represented. This was also true of phone calls and visitors: all communications had to pass through the secretary before reaching the intended recipient.<br />
<br />
Secretaries themselves still exist, but their duties have changed drastically due to email communications, word processing, and various other technologies. Letter dictation in particular is now incredibly rare, perhaps because of the common use of word processing technologies which drastically reduce the time needed to compose documents. Like the demise of the scribe due to increased literacy and printing, the stenographic duties of the secretary have diminished due to computing technologies. However, stenographers (using stenographic typewriters) are still in use in the legal system alongside voice-to-speech technology in case of computer failure.<br />
<br />
== Stenography in secretarial duties ==<br />
<br />
Stenography, or the practice of transcribing spoken word, was essential to the duties of a secretary, and a fast speed (usually of 100 words per minute), was desirable. "Except in the instances of college graduates, of persons who have received a specialized training in secretarial work, and of those who posess some exceptional qualification (a knowledge of financial matters or the ability to write well, for example), it is very difficult to obtain a position as a real private secretary without first having served an apprenticeship as a stenographer" (Kilduff 358).<br />
[[Image:gregg.jpg|thumb|left]]<br />
The importance of stenography, and particularly accurate stenography, for the secretary was expressed by George E. Roberts, vice president of National City Bank of New York City, "If my stenographer is not wholly accurate and dependable in transcribing her notes--her share of this mutual work--the effectiveness of my letter suffers. Through carelessness she has made me appear to say things I did not say, she has inclined my reader to the belief that I am ungrammatical, and by her inaccuracies in typing she has caused my letter to make an unfavorable impression. [...] Letter writing is an important function in business, and is becoming of greater importance because of the fact that transactions carried on by means of letters are rapidly increasing in number. The personal contact between a business house and its customers that existed in former years is being supplanted by a contact by letters. And all of this means that we must today make our letters more efficient. To do so we must enlist the coöperation of our stenographers to perform efficiently their share of the work of getting out good letters--letters that are accurate in transcription, correct in spelling, grammar, and punctuation, and pleasing in appearance" (Kilduff 13). This excerpt suggests that secretaries only copied exactly what was written, but frequently part of their duty was to correct wording, phrasing, and grammar, and know all of the correct formats, sort of like what Microsoft Word does with its Paperclip helper.<br />
<br />
Many different types of speedwriting and shorthand exist, including the Pitman and Graham styles. College courses on shorthand were a popular choice for young women, and considered to be very practical. An example of this is in Sylvia Plath's novel ''The Bell Jar'', in which the Plath-based protagonist Esther's mother encourages Esther to take shorthand instead of trying to be a poet. Esther rejects this, seeing shorthand as a sure way into a subservient lifestyle.<br />
<br />
== The typewriter's role in the growth of the secretary ==<br />
<br />
In 1890, the U.S. Census reported 33,000 people employed as stenographers/typists, and by 1900, there were 134,000 people employed as stenographers, typists, and secretaries. In 1910, that number doubled; and in 1920 doubled again--786,000 secretaries (Yates 43). The typewriter allowed for a massive boom in the amount of women in the workforce: in 1871, only four percent of total commercial (business skills) school was female, and by 1900, that number leaped to 36 percent (Yates 44).[[Image:typist.jpg|thumb|right]]<br />
<br />
Before the typewriter, letters were usually drafted and finalized by the composer of the letter--that is to say, the writer (the one who thought up the source of the material) and the writer (the one who performed the physical act of writing) were one in the same. With the advent of the typewriter, the two acts were separated entirely. According to Yates, the typewriter allowed "increasing subdivision of tasks and specialization of jobs, with the techniques of systematic management to coordinate the various specialized elements" in order to maximize efficiency. The typewriter further reduced the amount of time spent by highly paid executives on letter-writing, instead moving that task to lesser-paid secretarial workers (44). <br />
<br />
With the popularization of personal computers and word processing, this separation of composing and typing has again merged, as executives can easily write their own letters and internal communication is done increasingly through e-mail.<br />
<br />
== Secretary as extension of self ==<br />
<br />
What is particularly interesting about the secretary as a medium was the focus on her appearances, or 'poise.' While secretarial handbooks emphasize fast typing and shorthand skills along with organizational skills, each book has lengthly sections on the presentation of a secretary. As is expected, secretaries had dress requirements like we do today in offices, but even more requests on the attributes of secretaries were made. For example, a desired quality among secretaries was a pleasing voice, and to smile. Becker encourages secretaries to be 'phonogeninc' while on the telephone, at least until "television becomes a practical commercial reality" for telecommunications (73). Particular posture was requested--"Draping yourself about furniture, or leaning against files or doors as if they were lampposts is similarly condemned" (Becker 106)--and only pale nailpolish acceptable. One secretary recommends wearing blue frequently, as "[m]en almost universally like blue" (103). <br />
<br />
Manners were also essential, and women were thought to be much better at mannered speech and behavior than men, and more adept at being 'channels.' Edward Kilduff explains, "In so far as any general statement can be true, male secretaries are more likely not to possess suitable manners than are female secretaries; perhaps because it is man's nature to be more unrestrained and more independent than women, perhaps because men are not so sensitive to the effects of manners as women are and hence do not appreciate their value." Men, essentially, made bad mediums because they are too independent, more productive, and more creative than women.<br />
<br />
The work a secretary did, particularly letters, were not signed by secretaries but rather bosses, and it was important that they and their work was reflective of their employers. The secretary, ideally, was to be involved, but not necessarily thought of as a 'producer' of content--only visible as an extension rather than authority: "Letters are an expression of an executive's personality. Don't you, as a secretary, quickly spot any flaws that come to your employer's desk? Don't you judge other secretaries and their employers by the kind of letters they mail from their offices?" (Becker 11)<br />
<br />
The ideal secretary was one who was trustworthy with private data, efficient, reliable, and attractive. She, as one employer describes in ''Secretaries Who Succeed'', served as "an extension of my own brain" (37). This sentiment has been echoed in the present with new technologies such as the iPhone, Blackberries, and laptops--all of which similarly serve as both status symbols, secret-keepers, transmitters of data, and as extensions of one's consciousness.<br />
<br />
== Letter dictation in pop culture ==<br />
<br />
In ''Monty Python's Flying Circus'' episode 33, <a href=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hf0FFAFqle8>letter dictation is parodied</a>. Biggles dictates a letter to his secretary, who is confused as to exactly what words to transcribe in this exchange:<br />
[[Image:biggles.jpg|thumb|right|Biggles puts on antlers to indicate he is not dictating]]<br />
<br />
'''Secretary.''' Of Norway, is that?<br />
<br />
'''Biggles.''' Just put down what I say.<br />
<br />
'''Secretary.''' Do I put that down?<br />
<br />
'''Biggles.''' Of course you don't put that down.<br />
<br />
'''Secretary.''' Well what about that?<br />
<br />
'''Biggles.''' Look. (she types) Don't put that down. Just put down - wait a mo - wait a mo. (puts on antlers) Now, when I've got these antlers on - when I've got these antlers on I am dictating and when I take them off (takes them off) I am not dictating.<br />
<br />
'''Secretary.''' (types) I am not dictating.<br />
<br />
'''Biggles.''' What? (she types; puts the antlers on) Read that back.<br />
<br />
'''Secretary.''' Dear King Haakon, I am not dictating what?<br />
<br />
'''Biggles.''' No, no, no, you loopy brothel inmate.<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<br />
Becker, Esther R. ''Secretaries Who Succeed''. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1947.<br />
<br />
Charters, W. W. and Isadore B. Whitley. ''Summary of Report on Analysis of Secretarial Duties and Traits.'' New York: The National Junior Personell Service, Inc., 1924.<br />
<br />
Doutt, Howard M. ''Secretarial Science''. Chicago: Richard D. Irwin, Inc., 1944.<br />
<br />
"Episode 33." ''Monty Python's Flying Circus.'' BBC. 30 Nov 1972.<br />
<br />
Kilduff, Edward Jones. ''The Private Secretary''. New York: D. Appleton-Century Company, 1924.<br />
<br />
Pitman, Isaac. ''New Standard Dictation Course.'' New York: Pittman & Sons, 1933.<br />
<br />
Yates, JoAnne. ''Control Through Communication.'' Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989.</div>Torpillehttp://www.cultureandcommunication.org/deadmedia/index.php?title=File:Typist.jpg&diff=5980File:Typist.jpg2008-11-12T18:10:58Z<p>Torpille: Typist</p>
<hr />
<div>Typist</div>Torpillehttp://www.cultureandcommunication.org/deadmedia/index.php?title=Secretarial_Letter_Dictation&diff=5979Secretarial Letter Dictation2008-11-12T18:10:36Z<p>Torpille: /* The typewriter's role in the growth of the secretary */</p>
<hr />
<div>== Basics of secretarial positions ==<br />
<br />
Secretarial work, in one form or another, has existed since writing has existed; scribes were the first incarnation, followed by clerks. With the commercialization of the typewriter in the late 1800s and their adoption in the 1900s, record-keeping and composition became increasingly integral to modern businesess and organizations. Originally, most outgoing business correspondence was handled by business owners and a hired clerk, and was usually handwritten (Yates 25). This was an incredibly time consuming, laborious process, and made record keeping confusing, as all incoming and outgoing communication was hand copied so it was impractical to keep more than one comprehensive book of correspondence (Yates 38). Speedwriting and stenography along with typing skills sped up the process of bureaucracy and were delegated to women, particularly young women, in the 1900s. <br />
<br />
The origins of the word secretary are generally agreed to be related to secret-keeping and trust. According to Edward Jones Kilduff, the word secretary "has its origin in common with the word secret, for both are derived from the Latin word secretus, which means private, secret, or pertaining to private or secret matters. Hence came the general definition of secretary as a person who is intrusted with private or secret matters; a confidential officer or attendant; a confidant" (Kilduff 3).<br />
<br />
== Secretary as mediums ==<br />
<br />
In a sense, secretarial work is a kind of 'medium' in and of itself. Secretaries receive communications from all types of sources; it is up to the secretary to determine which communications are the most pressing, and which do not deserve attention, and forward the important communications to the boss. Communications between businesses, especially letters, were not usually written by the businesspeople themselves--rather, the businessperson would speak (dictate) what was in the letter while the secretary/stenographer would write in shorthand what her supervisor dictated, and then type the letter on a typewriter with correct 'form,' meaning correcting any grammatical errors, formatting, spelling, detail work, etc. Essentially mail communications would go from a businessman to his secretary to another secretary to the businessman she represented. This was also true of phone calls and visitors: all communications had to pass through the secretary before reaching the intended recipient.<br />
<br />
Secretaries themselves still exist, but their duties have changed drastically due to email communications, word processing, and various other technologies. Letter dictation in particular is now incredibly rare, perhaps because of the common use of word processing technologies which drastically reduce the time needed to compose documents. Like the demise of the scribe due to increased literacy and printing, the stenographic duties of the secretary have diminished due to computing technologies. However, stenographers (using stenographic typewriters) are still in use in the legal system alongside voice-to-speech technology in case of computer failure.<br />
<br />
== Stenography in secretarial duties ==<br />
<br />
Stenography, or the practice of transcribing spoken word, was essential to the duties of a secretary, and a fast speed (usually of 100 words per minute), was desirable. "Except in the instances of college graduates, of persons who have received a specialized training in secretarial work, and of those who posess some exceptional qualification (a knowledge of financial matters or the ability to write well, for example), it is very difficult to obtain a position as a real private secretary without first having served an apprenticeship as a stenographer" (Kilduff 358).<br />
[[Image:gregg.jpg|thumb|left]]<br />
The importance of stenography, and particularly accurate stenography, for the secretary was expressed by George E. Roberts, vice president of National City Bank of New York City, "If my stenographer is not wholly accurate and dependable in transcribing her notes--her share of this mutual work--the effectiveness of my letter suffers. Through carelessness she has made me appear to say things I did not say, she has inclined my reader to the belief that I am ungrammatical, and by her inaccuracies in typing she has caused my letter to make an unfavorable impression. [...] Letter writing is an important function in business, and is becoming of greater importance because of the fact that transactions carried on by means of letters are rapidly increasing in number. The personal contact between a business house and its customers that existed in former years is being supplanted by a contact by letters. And all of this means that we must today make our letters more efficient. To do so we must enlist the coöperation of our stenographers to perform efficiently their share of the work of getting out good letters--letters that are accurate in transcription, correct in spelling, grammar, and punctuation, and pleasing in appearance" (Kilduff 13). This excerpt suggests that secretaries only copied exactly what was written, but frequently part of their duty was to correct wording, phrasing, and grammar, and know all of the correct formats, sort of like what Microsoft Word does with its Paperclip helper.<br />
<br />
Many different types of speedwriting and shorthand exist, including the Pitman and Graham styles. College courses on shorthand were a popular choice for young women, and considered to be very practical. An example of this is in Sylvia Plath's novel ''The Bell Jar'', in which the Plath-based protagonist Esther's mother encourages Esther to take shorthand instead of trying to be a poet. Esther rejects this, seeing shorthand as a sure way into a subservient lifestyle.<br />
<br />
== The typewriter's role in the growth of the secretary ==<br />
<br />
In 1890, the U.S. Census reported 33,000 people employed as stenographers/typists, and by 1900, there were 134,000 people employed as stenographers, typists, and secretaries. In 1910, that number doubled; and in 1920 doubled again--786,000 secretaries (Yates 43). The typewriter allowed for a massive boom in the amount of women in the workforce: in 1871, only four percent of total commercial (business skills) school was female, and by 1900, that number leaped to 36 percent (Yates 44).[[Image:typist.jpg]]<br />
<br />
Before the typewriter, letters were usually drafted and finalized by the composer of the letter--that is to say, the writer (the one who thought up the source of the material) and the writer (the one who performed the physical act of writing) were one in the same. With the advent of the typewriter, the two acts were separated entirely. According to Yates, the typewriter allowed "increasing subdivision of tasks and specialization of jobs, with the techniques of systematic management to coordinate the various specialized elements" in order to maximize efficiency. The typewriter further reduced the amount of time spent by highly paid executives on letter-writing, instead moving that task to lesser-paid secretarial workers (44). <br />
<br />
With the popularization of personal computers and word processing, this separation of composing and typing has again merged, as executives can easily write their own letters and internal communication is done increasingly through e-mail.<br />
<br />
== Secretary as extension of self ==<br />
<br />
What is particularly interesting about the secretary as a medium was the focus on her appearances, or 'poise.' While secretarial handbooks emphasize fast typing and shorthand skills along with organizational skills, each book has lengthly sections on the presentation of a secretary. As is expected, secretaries had dress requirements like we do today in offices, but even more requests on the attributes of secretaries were made. For example, a desired quality among secretaries was a pleasing voice, and to smile. Becker encourages secretaries to be 'phonogeninc' while on the telephone, at least until "television becomes a practical commercial reality" for telecommunications (73). Particular posture was requested--"Draping yourself about furniture, or leaning against files or doors as if they were lampposts is similarly condemned" (Becker 106)--and only pale nailpolish acceptable. One secretary recommends wearing blue frequently, as "[m]en almost universally like blue" (103). <br />
<br />
Manners were also essential, and women were thought to be much better at mannered speech and behavior than men, and more adept at being 'channels.' Edward Kilduff explains, "In so far as any general statement can be true, male secretaries are more likely not to possess suitable manners than are female secretaries; perhaps because it is man's nature to be more unrestrained and more independent than women, perhaps because men are not so sensitive to the effects of manners as women are and hence do not appreciate their value." Men, essentially, made bad mediums because they are too independent, more productive, and more creative than women.<br />
<br />
The work a secretary did, particularly letters, were not signed by secretaries but rather bosses, and it was important that they and their work was reflective of their employers. The secretary, ideally, was to be involved, but not necessarily thought of as a 'producer' of content--only visible as an extension rather than authority: "Letters are an expression of an executive's personality. Don't you, as a secretary, quickly spot any flaws that come to your employer's desk? Don't you judge other secretaries and their employers by the kind of letters they mail from their offices?" (Becker 11)<br />
<br />
The ideal secretary was one who was trustworthy with private data, efficient, reliable, and attractive. She, as one employer describes in ''Secretaries Who Succeed'', served as "an extension of my own brain" (37). This sentiment has been echoed in the present with new technologies such as the iPhone, Blackberries, and laptops--all of which similarly serve as both status symbols, secret-keepers, transmitters of data, and as extensions of one's consciousness.<br />
<br />
== Letter dictation in pop culture ==<br />
<br />
In ''Monty Python's Flying Circus'' episode 33, <a href=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hf0FFAFqle8>letter dictation is parodied</a>. Biggles dictates a letter to his secretary, who is confused as to exactly what words to transcribe in this exchange:<br />
[[Image:biggles.jpg|thumb|right|Biggles puts on antlers to indicate he is not dictating]]<br />
<br />
'''Secretary.''' Of Norway, is that?<br />
<br />
'''Biggles.''' Just put down what I say.<br />
<br />
'''Secretary.''' Do I put that down?<br />
<br />
'''Biggles.''' Of course you don't put that down.<br />
<br />
'''Secretary.''' Well what about that?<br />
<br />
'''Biggles.''' Look. (she types) Don't put that down. Just put down - wait a mo - wait a mo. (puts on antlers) Now, when I've got these antlers on - when I've got these antlers on I am dictating and when I take them off (takes them off) I am not dictating.<br />
<br />
'''Secretary.''' (types) I am not dictating.<br />
<br />
'''Biggles.''' What? (she types; puts the antlers on) Read that back.<br />
<br />
'''Secretary.''' Dear King Haakon, I am not dictating what?<br />
<br />
'''Biggles.''' No, no, no, you loopy brothel inmate.<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<br />
Becker, Esther R. ''Secretaries Who Succeed''. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1947.<br />
<br />
Charters, W. W. and Isadore B. Whitley. ''Summary of Report on Analysis of Secretarial Duties and Traits.'' New York: The National Junior Personell Service, Inc., 1924.<br />
<br />
Doutt, Howard M. ''Secretarial Science''. Chicago: Richard D. Irwin, Inc., 1944.<br />
<br />
"Episode 33." ''Monty Python's Flying Circus.'' BBC. 30 Nov 1972.<br />
<br />
Kilduff, Edward Jones. ''The Private Secretary''. New York: D. Appleton-Century Company, 1924.<br />
<br />
Pitman, Isaac. ''New Standard Dictation Course.'' New York: Pittman & Sons, 1933.<br />
<br />
Yates, JoAnne. ''Control Through Communication.'' Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989.</div>Torpillehttp://www.cultureandcommunication.org/deadmedia/index.php?title=Secretarial_Letter_Dictation&diff=5978Secretarial Letter Dictation2008-11-12T18:06:33Z<p>Torpille: /* Stenography in secretarial duties */</p>
<hr />
<div>== Basics of secretarial positions ==<br />
<br />
Secretarial work, in one form or another, has existed since writing has existed; scribes were the first incarnation, followed by clerks. With the commercialization of the typewriter in the late 1800s and their adoption in the 1900s, record-keeping and composition became increasingly integral to modern businesess and organizations. Originally, most outgoing business correspondence was handled by business owners and a hired clerk, and was usually handwritten (Yates 25). This was an incredibly time consuming, laborious process, and made record keeping confusing, as all incoming and outgoing communication was hand copied so it was impractical to keep more than one comprehensive book of correspondence (Yates 38). Speedwriting and stenography along with typing skills sped up the process of bureaucracy and were delegated to women, particularly young women, in the 1900s. <br />
<br />
The origins of the word secretary are generally agreed to be related to secret-keeping and trust. According to Edward Jones Kilduff, the word secretary "has its origin in common with the word secret, for both are derived from the Latin word secretus, which means private, secret, or pertaining to private or secret matters. Hence came the general definition of secretary as a person who is intrusted with private or secret matters; a confidential officer or attendant; a confidant" (Kilduff 3).<br />
<br />
== Secretary as mediums ==<br />
<br />
In a sense, secretarial work is a kind of 'medium' in and of itself. Secretaries receive communications from all types of sources; it is up to the secretary to determine which communications are the most pressing, and which do not deserve attention, and forward the important communications to the boss. Communications between businesses, especially letters, were not usually written by the businesspeople themselves--rather, the businessperson would speak (dictate) what was in the letter while the secretary/stenographer would write in shorthand what her supervisor dictated, and then type the letter on a typewriter with correct 'form,' meaning correcting any grammatical errors, formatting, spelling, detail work, etc. Essentially mail communications would go from a businessman to his secretary to another secretary to the businessman she represented. This was also true of phone calls and visitors: all communications had to pass through the secretary before reaching the intended recipient.<br />
<br />
Secretaries themselves still exist, but their duties have changed drastically due to email communications, word processing, and various other technologies. Letter dictation in particular is now incredibly rare, perhaps because of the common use of word processing technologies which drastically reduce the time needed to compose documents. Like the demise of the scribe due to increased literacy and printing, the stenographic duties of the secretary have diminished due to computing technologies. However, stenographers (using stenographic typewriters) are still in use in the legal system alongside voice-to-speech technology in case of computer failure.<br />
<br />
== Stenography in secretarial duties ==<br />
<br />
Stenography, or the practice of transcribing spoken word, was essential to the duties of a secretary, and a fast speed (usually of 100 words per minute), was desirable. "Except in the instances of college graduates, of persons who have received a specialized training in secretarial work, and of those who posess some exceptional qualification (a knowledge of financial matters or the ability to write well, for example), it is very difficult to obtain a position as a real private secretary without first having served an apprenticeship as a stenographer" (Kilduff 358).<br />
[[Image:gregg.jpg|thumb|left]]<br />
The importance of stenography, and particularly accurate stenography, for the secretary was expressed by George E. Roberts, vice president of National City Bank of New York City, "If my stenographer is not wholly accurate and dependable in transcribing her notes--her share of this mutual work--the effectiveness of my letter suffers. Through carelessness she has made me appear to say things I did not say, she has inclined my reader to the belief that I am ungrammatical, and by her inaccuracies in typing she has caused my letter to make an unfavorable impression. [...] Letter writing is an important function in business, and is becoming of greater importance because of the fact that transactions carried on by means of letters are rapidly increasing in number. The personal contact between a business house and its customers that existed in former years is being supplanted by a contact by letters. And all of this means that we must today make our letters more efficient. To do so we must enlist the coöperation of our stenographers to perform efficiently their share of the work of getting out good letters--letters that are accurate in transcription, correct in spelling, grammar, and punctuation, and pleasing in appearance" (Kilduff 13). This excerpt suggests that secretaries only copied exactly what was written, but frequently part of their duty was to correct wording, phrasing, and grammar, and know all of the correct formats, sort of like what Microsoft Word does with its Paperclip helper.<br />
<br />
Many different types of speedwriting and shorthand exist, including the Pitman and Graham styles. College courses on shorthand were a popular choice for young women, and considered to be very practical. An example of this is in Sylvia Plath's novel ''The Bell Jar'', in which the Plath-based protagonist Esther's mother encourages Esther to take shorthand instead of trying to be a poet. Esther rejects this, seeing shorthand as a sure way into a subservient lifestyle.<br />
<br />
== The typewriter's role in the growth of the secretary ==<br />
<br />
In 1890, the U.S. Census reported 33,000 people employed as stenographers/typists, and by 1900, there were 134,000 people employed as stenographers, typists, and secretaries. In 1910, that number doubled; and in 1920 doubled again--786,000 secretaries (Yates 43). The typewriter allowed for a massive boom in the amount of women in the workforce: in 1871, only four percent of total commercial (business skills) school was female, and by 1900, that number leaped to 36 percent (Yates 44).<br />
<br />
Before the typewriter, letters were usually drafted and finalized by the composer of the letter--that is to say, the writer (the one who thought up the source of the material) and the writer (the one who performed the physical act of writing) were one in the same. With the advent of the typewriter, the two acts were separated entirely. According to Yates, the typewriter allowed "increasing subdivision of tasks and specialization of jobs, with the techniques of systematic management to coordinate the various specialized elements" in order to maximize efficiency. The typewriter further reduced the amount of time spent by highly paid executives on letter-writing, instead moving that task to lesser-paid secretarial workers (44). <br />
<br />
With the popularization of personal computers and word processing, this separation of composing and typing has again merged, as executives can easily write their own letters and internal communication is done increasingly through e-mail.<br />
<br />
== Secretary as extension of self ==<br />
<br />
What is particularly interesting about the secretary as a medium was the focus on her appearances, or 'poise.' While secretarial handbooks emphasize fast typing and shorthand skills along with organizational skills, each book has lengthly sections on the presentation of a secretary. As is expected, secretaries had dress requirements like we do today in offices, but even more requests on the attributes of secretaries were made. For example, a desired quality among secretaries was a pleasing voice, and to smile. Becker encourages secretaries to be 'phonogeninc' while on the telephone, at least until "television becomes a practical commercial reality" for telecommunications (73). Particular posture was requested--"Draping yourself about furniture, or leaning against files or doors as if they were lampposts is similarly condemned" (Becker 106)--and only pale nailpolish acceptable. One secretary recommends wearing blue frequently, as "[m]en almost universally like blue" (103). <br />
<br />
Manners were also essential, and women were thought to be much better at mannered speech and behavior than men, and more adept at being 'channels.' Edward Kilduff explains, "In so far as any general statement can be true, male secretaries are more likely not to possess suitable manners than are female secretaries; perhaps because it is man's nature to be more unrestrained and more independent than women, perhaps because men are not so sensitive to the effects of manners as women are and hence do not appreciate their value." Men, essentially, made bad mediums because they are too independent, more productive, and more creative than women.<br />
<br />
The work a secretary did, particularly letters, were not signed by secretaries but rather bosses, and it was important that they and their work was reflective of their employers. The secretary, ideally, was to be involved, but not necessarily thought of as a 'producer' of content--only visible as an extension rather than authority: "Letters are an expression of an executive's personality. Don't you, as a secretary, quickly spot any flaws that come to your employer's desk? Don't you judge other secretaries and their employers by the kind of letters they mail from their offices?" (Becker 11)<br />
<br />
The ideal secretary was one who was trustworthy with private data, efficient, reliable, and attractive. She, as one employer describes in ''Secretaries Who Succeed'', served as "an extension of my own brain" (37). This sentiment has been echoed in the present with new technologies such as the iPhone, Blackberries, and laptops--all of which similarly serve as both status symbols, secret-keepers, transmitters of data, and as extensions of one's consciousness.<br />
<br />
== Letter dictation in pop culture ==<br />
<br />
In ''Monty Python's Flying Circus'' episode 33, <a href=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hf0FFAFqle8>letter dictation is parodied</a>. Biggles dictates a letter to his secretary, who is confused as to exactly what words to transcribe in this exchange:<br />
[[Image:biggles.jpg|thumb|right|Biggles puts on antlers to indicate he is not dictating]]<br />
<br />
'''Secretary.''' Of Norway, is that?<br />
<br />
'''Biggles.''' Just put down what I say.<br />
<br />
'''Secretary.''' Do I put that down?<br />
<br />
'''Biggles.''' Of course you don't put that down.<br />
<br />
'''Secretary.''' Well what about that?<br />
<br />
'''Biggles.''' Look. (she types) Don't put that down. Just put down - wait a mo - wait a mo. (puts on antlers) Now, when I've got these antlers on - when I've got these antlers on I am dictating and when I take them off (takes them off) I am not dictating.<br />
<br />
'''Secretary.''' (types) I am not dictating.<br />
<br />
'''Biggles.''' What? (she types; puts the antlers on) Read that back.<br />
<br />
'''Secretary.''' Dear King Haakon, I am not dictating what?<br />
<br />
'''Biggles.''' No, no, no, you loopy brothel inmate.<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<br />
Becker, Esther R. ''Secretaries Who Succeed''. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1947.<br />
<br />
Charters, W. W. and Isadore B. Whitley. ''Summary of Report on Analysis of Secretarial Duties and Traits.'' New York: The National Junior Personell Service, Inc., 1924.<br />
<br />
Doutt, Howard M. ''Secretarial Science''. Chicago: Richard D. Irwin, Inc., 1944.<br />
<br />
"Episode 33." ''Monty Python's Flying Circus.'' BBC. 30 Nov 1972.<br />
<br />
Kilduff, Edward Jones. ''The Private Secretary''. New York: D. Appleton-Century Company, 1924.<br />
<br />
Pitman, Isaac. ''New Standard Dictation Course.'' New York: Pittman & Sons, 1933.<br />
<br />
Yates, JoAnne. ''Control Through Communication.'' Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989.</div>Torpillehttp://www.cultureandcommunication.org/deadmedia/index.php?title=Secretarial_Letter_Dictation&diff=5977Secretarial Letter Dictation2008-11-12T18:06:18Z<p>Torpille: /* Stenography in secretarial duties */</p>
<hr />
<div>== Basics of secretarial positions ==<br />
<br />
Secretarial work, in one form or another, has existed since writing has existed; scribes were the first incarnation, followed by clerks. With the commercialization of the typewriter in the late 1800s and their adoption in the 1900s, record-keeping and composition became increasingly integral to modern businesess and organizations. Originally, most outgoing business correspondence was handled by business owners and a hired clerk, and was usually handwritten (Yates 25). This was an incredibly time consuming, laborious process, and made record keeping confusing, as all incoming and outgoing communication was hand copied so it was impractical to keep more than one comprehensive book of correspondence (Yates 38). Speedwriting and stenography along with typing skills sped up the process of bureaucracy and were delegated to women, particularly young women, in the 1900s. <br />
<br />
The origins of the word secretary are generally agreed to be related to secret-keeping and trust. According to Edward Jones Kilduff, the word secretary "has its origin in common with the word secret, for both are derived from the Latin word secretus, which means private, secret, or pertaining to private or secret matters. Hence came the general definition of secretary as a person who is intrusted with private or secret matters; a confidential officer or attendant; a confidant" (Kilduff 3).<br />
<br />
== Secretary as mediums ==<br />
<br />
In a sense, secretarial work is a kind of 'medium' in and of itself. Secretaries receive communications from all types of sources; it is up to the secretary to determine which communications are the most pressing, and which do not deserve attention, and forward the important communications to the boss. Communications between businesses, especially letters, were not usually written by the businesspeople themselves--rather, the businessperson would speak (dictate) what was in the letter while the secretary/stenographer would write in shorthand what her supervisor dictated, and then type the letter on a typewriter with correct 'form,' meaning correcting any grammatical errors, formatting, spelling, detail work, etc. Essentially mail communications would go from a businessman to his secretary to another secretary to the businessman she represented. This was also true of phone calls and visitors: all communications had to pass through the secretary before reaching the intended recipient.<br />
<br />
Secretaries themselves still exist, but their duties have changed drastically due to email communications, word processing, and various other technologies. Letter dictation in particular is now incredibly rare, perhaps because of the common use of word processing technologies which drastically reduce the time needed to compose documents. Like the demise of the scribe due to increased literacy and printing, the stenographic duties of the secretary have diminished due to computing technologies. However, stenographers (using stenographic typewriters) are still in use in the legal system alongside voice-to-speech technology in case of computer failure.<br />
<br />
== Stenography in secretarial duties ==<br />
<br />
Stenography, or the practice of transcribing spoken word, was essential to the duties of a secretary, and a fast speed (usually of 100 words per minute), was desirable. "Except in the instances of college graduates, of persons who have received a specialized training in secretarial work, and of those who posess some exceptional qualification (a knowledge of financial matters or the ability to write well, for example), it is very difficult to obtain a position as a real private secretary without first having served an apprenticeship as a stenographer" (Kilduff 358).<br />
<br />
The importance of stenography, and particularly accurate stenography, for the secretary was expressed by George E. Roberts, vice president of National City Bank of New York City, "If my stenographer is not wholly accurate and dependable in transcribing her notes--her share of this mutual work--the effectiveness of my letter suffers. Through carelessness she has made me appear to say things I did not say, she has inclined my reader to the belief that I am ungrammatical, and by her inaccuracies in typing she has caused my letter to make an unfavorable impression. [...] Letter writing is an important function in business, and is becoming of greater importance because of the fact that transactions carried on by means of letters are rapidly increasing in number. The personal contact between a business house and its customers that existed in former years is being supplanted by a contact by letters. And all of this means that we must today make our letters more efficient. To do so we must enlist the coöperation of our stenographers to perform efficiently their share of the work of getting out good letters--letters that are accurate in transcription, correct in spelling, grammar, and punctuation, and pleasing in appearance" (Kilduff 13). This excerpt suggests that secretaries only copied exactly what was written, but frequently part of their duty was to correct wording, phrasing, and grammar, and know all of the correct formats, sort of like what Microsoft Word does with its Paperclip helper.[[Image:gregg.jpg|thumb|left]]<br />
<br />
Many different types of speedwriting and shorthand exist, including the Pitman and Graham styles. College courses on shorthand were a popular choice for young women, and considered to be very practical. An example of this is in Sylvia Plath's novel ''The Bell Jar'', in which the Plath-based protagonist Esther's mother encourages Esther to take shorthand instead of trying to be a poet. Esther rejects this, seeing shorthand as a sure way into a subservient lifestyle.<br />
<br />
== The typewriter's role in the growth of the secretary ==<br />
<br />
In 1890, the U.S. Census reported 33,000 people employed as stenographers/typists, and by 1900, there were 134,000 people employed as stenographers, typists, and secretaries. In 1910, that number doubled; and in 1920 doubled again--786,000 secretaries (Yates 43). The typewriter allowed for a massive boom in the amount of women in the workforce: in 1871, only four percent of total commercial (business skills) school was female, and by 1900, that number leaped to 36 percent (Yates 44).<br />
<br />
Before the typewriter, letters were usually drafted and finalized by the composer of the letter--that is to say, the writer (the one who thought up the source of the material) and the writer (the one who performed the physical act of writing) were one in the same. With the advent of the typewriter, the two acts were separated entirely. According to Yates, the typewriter allowed "increasing subdivision of tasks and specialization of jobs, with the techniques of systematic management to coordinate the various specialized elements" in order to maximize efficiency. The typewriter further reduced the amount of time spent by highly paid executives on letter-writing, instead moving that task to lesser-paid secretarial workers (44). <br />
<br />
With the popularization of personal computers and word processing, this separation of composing and typing has again merged, as executives can easily write their own letters and internal communication is done increasingly through e-mail.<br />
<br />
== Secretary as extension of self ==<br />
<br />
What is particularly interesting about the secretary as a medium was the focus on her appearances, or 'poise.' While secretarial handbooks emphasize fast typing and shorthand skills along with organizational skills, each book has lengthly sections on the presentation of a secretary. As is expected, secretaries had dress requirements like we do today in offices, but even more requests on the attributes of secretaries were made. For example, a desired quality among secretaries was a pleasing voice, and to smile. Becker encourages secretaries to be 'phonogeninc' while on the telephone, at least until "television becomes a practical commercial reality" for telecommunications (73). Particular posture was requested--"Draping yourself about furniture, or leaning against files or doors as if they were lampposts is similarly condemned" (Becker 106)--and only pale nailpolish acceptable. One secretary recommends wearing blue frequently, as "[m]en almost universally like blue" (103). <br />
<br />
Manners were also essential, and women were thought to be much better at mannered speech and behavior than men, and more adept at being 'channels.' Edward Kilduff explains, "In so far as any general statement can be true, male secretaries are more likely not to possess suitable manners than are female secretaries; perhaps because it is man's nature to be more unrestrained and more independent than women, perhaps because men are not so sensitive to the effects of manners as women are and hence do not appreciate their value." Men, essentially, made bad mediums because they are too independent, more productive, and more creative than women.<br />
<br />
The work a secretary did, particularly letters, were not signed by secretaries but rather bosses, and it was important that they and their work was reflective of their employers. The secretary, ideally, was to be involved, but not necessarily thought of as a 'producer' of content--only visible as an extension rather than authority: "Letters are an expression of an executive's personality. Don't you, as a secretary, quickly spot any flaws that come to your employer's desk? Don't you judge other secretaries and their employers by the kind of letters they mail from their offices?" (Becker 11)<br />
<br />
The ideal secretary was one who was trustworthy with private data, efficient, reliable, and attractive. She, as one employer describes in ''Secretaries Who Succeed'', served as "an extension of my own brain" (37). This sentiment has been echoed in the present with new technologies such as the iPhone, Blackberries, and laptops--all of which similarly serve as both status symbols, secret-keepers, transmitters of data, and as extensions of one's consciousness.<br />
<br />
== Letter dictation in pop culture ==<br />
<br />
In ''Monty Python's Flying Circus'' episode 33, <a href=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hf0FFAFqle8>letter dictation is parodied</a>. Biggles dictates a letter to his secretary, who is confused as to exactly what words to transcribe in this exchange:<br />
[[Image:biggles.jpg|thumb|right|Biggles puts on antlers to indicate he is not dictating]]<br />
<br />
'''Secretary.''' Of Norway, is that?<br />
<br />
'''Biggles.''' Just put down what I say.<br />
<br />
'''Secretary.''' Do I put that down?<br />
<br />
'''Biggles.''' Of course you don't put that down.<br />
<br />
'''Secretary.''' Well what about that?<br />
<br />
'''Biggles.''' Look. (she types) Don't put that down. Just put down - wait a mo - wait a mo. (puts on antlers) Now, when I've got these antlers on - when I've got these antlers on I am dictating and when I take them off (takes them off) I am not dictating.<br />
<br />
'''Secretary.''' (types) I am not dictating.<br />
<br />
'''Biggles.''' What? (she types; puts the antlers on) Read that back.<br />
<br />
'''Secretary.''' Dear King Haakon, I am not dictating what?<br />
<br />
'''Biggles.''' No, no, no, you loopy brothel inmate.<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<br />
Becker, Esther R. ''Secretaries Who Succeed''. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1947.<br />
<br />
Charters, W. W. and Isadore B. Whitley. ''Summary of Report on Analysis of Secretarial Duties and Traits.'' New York: The National Junior Personell Service, Inc., 1924.<br />
<br />
Doutt, Howard M. ''Secretarial Science''. Chicago: Richard D. Irwin, Inc., 1944.<br />
<br />
"Episode 33." ''Monty Python's Flying Circus.'' BBC. 30 Nov 1972.<br />
<br />
Kilduff, Edward Jones. ''The Private Secretary''. New York: D. Appleton-Century Company, 1924.<br />
<br />
Pitman, Isaac. ''New Standard Dictation Course.'' New York: Pittman & Sons, 1933.<br />
<br />
Yates, JoAnne. ''Control Through Communication.'' Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989.</div>Torpillehttp://www.cultureandcommunication.org/deadmedia/index.php?title=File:Shorthand224.jpg&diff=5976File:Shorthand224.jpg2008-11-12T18:04:33Z<p>Torpille: Shorthand</p>
<hr />
<div>Shorthand</div>Torpillehttp://www.cultureandcommunication.org/deadmedia/index.php?title=Secretarial_Letter_Dictation&diff=5975Secretarial Letter Dictation2008-11-12T18:04:01Z<p>Torpille: /* Stenography in secretarial duties */</p>
<hr />
<div>== Basics of secretarial positions ==<br />
<br />
Secretarial work, in one form or another, has existed since writing has existed; scribes were the first incarnation, followed by clerks. With the commercialization of the typewriter in the late 1800s and their adoption in the 1900s, record-keeping and composition became increasingly integral to modern businesess and organizations. Originally, most outgoing business correspondence was handled by business owners and a hired clerk, and was usually handwritten (Yates 25). This was an incredibly time consuming, laborious process, and made record keeping confusing, as all incoming and outgoing communication was hand copied so it was impractical to keep more than one comprehensive book of correspondence (Yates 38). Speedwriting and stenography along with typing skills sped up the process of bureaucracy and were delegated to women, particularly young women, in the 1900s. <br />
<br />
The origins of the word secretary are generally agreed to be related to secret-keeping and trust. According to Edward Jones Kilduff, the word secretary "has its origin in common with the word secret, for both are derived from the Latin word secretus, which means private, secret, or pertaining to private or secret matters. Hence came the general definition of secretary as a person who is intrusted with private or secret matters; a confidential officer or attendant; a confidant" (Kilduff 3).<br />
<br />
== Secretary as mediums ==<br />
<br />
In a sense, secretarial work is a kind of 'medium' in and of itself. Secretaries receive communications from all types of sources; it is up to the secretary to determine which communications are the most pressing, and which do not deserve attention, and forward the important communications to the boss. Communications between businesses, especially letters, were not usually written by the businesspeople themselves--rather, the businessperson would speak (dictate) what was in the letter while the secretary/stenographer would write in shorthand what her supervisor dictated, and then type the letter on a typewriter with correct 'form,' meaning correcting any grammatical errors, formatting, spelling, detail work, etc. Essentially mail communications would go from a businessman to his secretary to another secretary to the businessman she represented. This was also true of phone calls and visitors: all communications had to pass through the secretary before reaching the intended recipient.<br />
<br />
Secretaries themselves still exist, but their duties have changed drastically due to email communications, word processing, and various other technologies. Letter dictation in particular is now incredibly rare, perhaps because of the common use of word processing technologies which drastically reduce the time needed to compose documents. Like the demise of the scribe due to increased literacy and printing, the stenographic duties of the secretary have diminished due to computing technologies. However, stenographers (using stenographic typewriters) are still in use in the legal system alongside voice-to-speech technology in case of computer failure.<br />
<br />
== Stenography in secretarial duties ==<br />
<br />
Stenography, or the practice of transcribing spoken word, was essential to the duties of a secretary, and a fast speed (usually of 100 words per minute), was desirable. "Except in the instances of college graduates, of persons who have received a specialized training in secretarial work, and of those who posess some exceptional qualification (a knowledge of financial matters or the ability to write well, for example), it is very difficult to obtain a position as a real private secretary without first having served an apprenticeship as a stenographer" (Kilduff 358).<br />
<br />
The importance of stenography, and particularly accurate stenography, for the secretary was expressed by George E. Roberts, vice president of National City Bank of New York City, "If my stenographer is not wholly accurate and dependable in transcribing her notes--her share of this mutual work--the effectiveness of my letter suffers. Through carelessness she has made me appear to say things I did not say, she has inclined my reader to the belief that I am ungrammatical, and by her inaccuracies in typing she has caused my letter to make an unfavorable impression. [...] Letter writing is an important function in business, and is becoming of greater importance because of the fact that transactions carried on by means of letters are rapidly increasing in number. The personal contact between a business house and its customers that existed in former years is being supplanted by a contact by letters. And all of this means that we must today make our letters more efficient. To do so we must enlist the coöperation of our stenographers to perform efficiently their share of the work of getting out good letters--letters that are accurate in transcription, correct in spelling, grammar, and punctuation, and pleasing in appearance" (Kilduff 13). This excerpt suggests that secretaries only copied exactly what was written, but frequently part of their duty was to correct wording, phrasing, and grammar, and know all of the correct formats, sort of like what Microsoft Word does with its Paperclip helper.[[Image:http://content.answers.com/main/content/wp/en-commons/thumb/a/ab/300px-Eclectic_shorthand_by_cross.png|thumb|left]]<br />
<br />
Many different types of speedwriting and shorthand exist, including the Pitman and Graham styles. College courses on shorthand were a popular choice for young women, and considered to be very practical. An example of this is in Sylvia Plath's novel ''The Bell Jar'', in which the Plath-based protagonist Esther's mother encourages Esther to take shorthand instead of trying to be a poet. Esther rejects this, seeing shorthand as a sure way into a subservient lifestyle.<br />
<br />
== The typewriter's role in the growth of the secretary ==<br />
<br />
In 1890, the U.S. Census reported 33,000 people employed as stenographers/typists, and by 1900, there were 134,000 people employed as stenographers, typists, and secretaries. In 1910, that number doubled; and in 1920 doubled again--786,000 secretaries (Yates 43). The typewriter allowed for a massive boom in the amount of women in the workforce: in 1871, only four percent of total commercial (business skills) school was female, and by 1900, that number leaped to 36 percent (Yates 44).<br />
<br />
Before the typewriter, letters were usually drafted and finalized by the composer of the letter--that is to say, the writer (the one who thought up the source of the material) and the writer (the one who performed the physical act of writing) were one in the same. With the advent of the typewriter, the two acts were separated entirely. According to Yates, the typewriter allowed "increasing subdivision of tasks and specialization of jobs, with the techniques of systematic management to coordinate the various specialized elements" in order to maximize efficiency. The typewriter further reduced the amount of time spent by highly paid executives on letter-writing, instead moving that task to lesser-paid secretarial workers (44). <br />
<br />
With the popularization of personal computers and word processing, this separation of composing and typing has again merged, as executives can easily write their own letters and internal communication is done increasingly through e-mail.<br />
<br />
== Secretary as extension of self ==<br />
<br />
What is particularly interesting about the secretary as a medium was the focus on her appearances, or 'poise.' While secretarial handbooks emphasize fast typing and shorthand skills along with organizational skills, each book has lengthly sections on the presentation of a secretary. As is expected, secretaries had dress requirements like we do today in offices, but even more requests on the attributes of secretaries were made. For example, a desired quality among secretaries was a pleasing voice, and to smile. Becker encourages secretaries to be 'phonogeninc' while on the telephone, at least until "television becomes a practical commercial reality" for telecommunications (73). Particular posture was requested--"Draping yourself about furniture, or leaning against files or doors as if they were lampposts is similarly condemned" (Becker 106)--and only pale nailpolish acceptable. One secretary recommends wearing blue frequently, as "[m]en almost universally like blue" (103). <br />
<br />
Manners were also essential, and women were thought to be much better at mannered speech and behavior than men, and more adept at being 'channels.' Edward Kilduff explains, "In so far as any general statement can be true, male secretaries are more likely not to possess suitable manners than are female secretaries; perhaps because it is man's nature to be more unrestrained and more independent than women, perhaps because men are not so sensitive to the effects of manners as women are and hence do not appreciate their value." Men, essentially, made bad mediums because they are too independent, more productive, and more creative than women.<br />
<br />
The work a secretary did, particularly letters, were not signed by secretaries but rather bosses, and it was important that they and their work was reflective of their employers. The secretary, ideally, was to be involved, but not necessarily thought of as a 'producer' of content--only visible as an extension rather than authority: "Letters are an expression of an executive's personality. Don't you, as a secretary, quickly spot any flaws that come to your employer's desk? Don't you judge other secretaries and their employers by the kind of letters they mail from their offices?" (Becker 11)<br />
<br />
The ideal secretary was one who was trustworthy with private data, efficient, reliable, and attractive. She, as one employer describes in ''Secretaries Who Succeed'', served as "an extension of my own brain" (37). This sentiment has been echoed in the present with new technologies such as the iPhone, Blackberries, and laptops--all of which similarly serve as both status symbols, secret-keepers, transmitters of data, and as extensions of one's consciousness.<br />
<br />
== Letter dictation in pop culture ==<br />
<br />
In ''Monty Python's Flying Circus'' episode 33, <a href=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hf0FFAFqle8>letter dictation is parodied</a>. Biggles dictates a letter to his secretary, who is confused as to exactly what words to transcribe in this exchange:<br />
[[Image:biggles.jpg|thumb|right|Biggles puts on antlers to indicate he is not dictating]]<br />
<br />
'''Secretary.''' Of Norway, is that?<br />
<br />
'''Biggles.''' Just put down what I say.<br />
<br />
'''Secretary.''' Do I put that down?<br />
<br />
'''Biggles.''' Of course you don't put that down.<br />
<br />
'''Secretary.''' Well what about that?<br />
<br />
'''Biggles.''' Look. (she types) Don't put that down. Just put down - wait a mo - wait a mo. (puts on antlers) Now, when I've got these antlers on - when I've got these antlers on I am dictating and when I take them off (takes them off) I am not dictating.<br />
<br />
'''Secretary.''' (types) I am not dictating.<br />
<br />
'''Biggles.''' What? (she types; puts the antlers on) Read that back.<br />
<br />
'''Secretary.''' Dear King Haakon, I am not dictating what?<br />
<br />
'''Biggles.''' No, no, no, you loopy brothel inmate.<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<br />
Becker, Esther R. ''Secretaries Who Succeed''. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1947.<br />
<br />
Charters, W. W. and Isadore B. Whitley. ''Summary of Report on Analysis of Secretarial Duties and Traits.'' New York: The National Junior Personell Service, Inc., 1924.<br />
<br />
Doutt, Howard M. ''Secretarial Science''. Chicago: Richard D. Irwin, Inc., 1944.<br />
<br />
"Episode 33." ''Monty Python's Flying Circus.'' BBC. 30 Nov 1972.<br />
<br />
Kilduff, Edward Jones. ''The Private Secretary''. New York: D. Appleton-Century Company, 1924.<br />
<br />
Pitman, Isaac. ''New Standard Dictation Course.'' New York: Pittman & Sons, 1933.<br />
<br />
Yates, JoAnne. ''Control Through Communication.'' Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989.</div>Torpillehttp://www.cultureandcommunication.org/deadmedia/index.php?title=Secretarial_Letter_Dictation&diff=5974Secretarial Letter Dictation2008-11-12T18:02:49Z<p>Torpille: /* Stenography in secretarial duties */</p>
<hr />
<div>== Basics of secretarial positions ==<br />
<br />
Secretarial work, in one form or another, has existed since writing has existed; scribes were the first incarnation, followed by clerks. With the commercialization of the typewriter in the late 1800s and their adoption in the 1900s, record-keeping and composition became increasingly integral to modern businesess and organizations. Originally, most outgoing business correspondence was handled by business owners and a hired clerk, and was usually handwritten (Yates 25). This was an incredibly time consuming, laborious process, and made record keeping confusing, as all incoming and outgoing communication was hand copied so it was impractical to keep more than one comprehensive book of correspondence (Yates 38). Speedwriting and stenography along with typing skills sped up the process of bureaucracy and were delegated to women, particularly young women, in the 1900s. <br />
<br />
The origins of the word secretary are generally agreed to be related to secret-keeping and trust. According to Edward Jones Kilduff, the word secretary "has its origin in common with the word secret, for both are derived from the Latin word secretus, which means private, secret, or pertaining to private or secret matters. Hence came the general definition of secretary as a person who is intrusted with private or secret matters; a confidential officer or attendant; a confidant" (Kilduff 3).<br />
<br />
== Secretary as mediums ==<br />
<br />
In a sense, secretarial work is a kind of 'medium' in and of itself. Secretaries receive communications from all types of sources; it is up to the secretary to determine which communications are the most pressing, and which do not deserve attention, and forward the important communications to the boss. Communications between businesses, especially letters, were not usually written by the businesspeople themselves--rather, the businessperson would speak (dictate) what was in the letter while the secretary/stenographer would write in shorthand what her supervisor dictated, and then type the letter on a typewriter with correct 'form,' meaning correcting any grammatical errors, formatting, spelling, detail work, etc. Essentially mail communications would go from a businessman to his secretary to another secretary to the businessman she represented. This was also true of phone calls and visitors: all communications had to pass through the secretary before reaching the intended recipient.<br />
<br />
Secretaries themselves still exist, but their duties have changed drastically due to email communications, word processing, and various other technologies. Letter dictation in particular is now incredibly rare, perhaps because of the common use of word processing technologies which drastically reduce the time needed to compose documents. Like the demise of the scribe due to increased literacy and printing, the stenographic duties of the secretary have diminished due to computing technologies. However, stenographers (using stenographic typewriters) are still in use in the legal system alongside voice-to-speech technology in case of computer failure.<br />
<br />
== Stenography in secretarial duties ==<br />
<br />
Stenography, or the practice of transcribing spoken word, was essential to the duties of a secretary, and a fast speed (usually of 100 words per minute), was desirable. "Except in the instances of college graduates, of persons who have received a specialized training in secretarial work, and of those who posess some exceptional qualification (a knowledge of financial matters or the ability to write well, for example), it is very difficult to obtain a position as a real private secretary without first having served an apprenticeship as a stenographer" (Kilduff 358).<br />
<br />
The importance of stenography, and particularly accurate stenography, for the secretary was expressed by George E. Roberts, vice president of National City Bank of New York City, "If my stenographer is not wholly accurate and dependable in transcribing her notes--her share of this mutual work--the effectiveness of my letter suffers. Through carelessness she has made me appear to say things I did not say, she has inclined my reader to the belief that I am ungrammatical, and by her inaccuracies in typing she has caused my letter to make an unfavorable impression. [...] Letter writing is an important function in business, and is becoming of greater importance because of the fact that transactions carried on by means of letters are rapidly increasing in number. The personal contact between a business house and its customers that existed in former years is being supplanted by a contact by letters. And all of this means that we must today make our letters more efficient. To do so we must enlist the coöperation of our stenographers to perform efficiently their share of the work of getting out good letters--letters that are accurate in transcription, correct in spelling, grammar, and punctuation, and pleasing in appearance" (Kilduff 13). This excerpt suggests that secretaries only copied exactly what was written, but frequently part of their duty was to correct wording, phrasing, and grammar, and know all of the correct formats, sort of like what Microsoft Word does with its Paperclip helper.[[Image:http://content.answers.com/main/content/wp/en-commons/thumb/a/ab/300px-Eclectic_shorthand_by_cross.png||thumb||left]]<br />
<br />
Many different types of speedwriting and shorthand exist, including the Pitman and Graham styles. College courses on shorthand were a popular choice for young women, and considered to be very practical. An example of this is in Sylvia Plath's novel ''The Bell Jar'', in which the Plath-based protagonist Esther's mother encourages Esther to take shorthand instead of trying to be a poet. Esther rejects this, seeing shorthand as a sure way into a subservient lifestyle.<br />
<br />
== The typewriter's role in the growth of the secretary ==<br />
<br />
In 1890, the U.S. Census reported 33,000 people employed as stenographers/typists, and by 1900, there were 134,000 people employed as stenographers, typists, and secretaries. In 1910, that number doubled; and in 1920 doubled again--786,000 secretaries (Yates 43). The typewriter allowed for a massive boom in the amount of women in the workforce: in 1871, only four percent of total commercial (business skills) school was female, and by 1900, that number leaped to 36 percent (Yates 44).<br />
<br />
Before the typewriter, letters were usually drafted and finalized by the composer of the letter--that is to say, the writer (the one who thought up the source of the material) and the writer (the one who performed the physical act of writing) were one in the same. With the advent of the typewriter, the two acts were separated entirely. According to Yates, the typewriter allowed "increasing subdivision of tasks and specialization of jobs, with the techniques of systematic management to coordinate the various specialized elements" in order to maximize efficiency. The typewriter further reduced the amount of time spent by highly paid executives on letter-writing, instead moving that task to lesser-paid secretarial workers (44). <br />
<br />
With the popularization of personal computers and word processing, this separation of composing and typing has again merged, as executives can easily write their own letters and internal communication is done increasingly through e-mail.<br />
<br />
== Secretary as extension of self ==<br />
<br />
What is particularly interesting about the secretary as a medium was the focus on her appearances, or 'poise.' While secretarial handbooks emphasize fast typing and shorthand skills along with organizational skills, each book has lengthly sections on the presentation of a secretary. As is expected, secretaries had dress requirements like we do today in offices, but even more requests on the attributes of secretaries were made. For example, a desired quality among secretaries was a pleasing voice, and to smile. Becker encourages secretaries to be 'phonogeninc' while on the telephone, at least until "television becomes a practical commercial reality" for telecommunications (73). Particular posture was requested--"Draping yourself about furniture, or leaning against files or doors as if they were lampposts is similarly condemned" (Becker 106)--and only pale nailpolish acceptable. One secretary recommends wearing blue frequently, as "[m]en almost universally like blue" (103). <br />
<br />
Manners were also essential, and women were thought to be much better at mannered speech and behavior than men, and more adept at being 'channels.' Edward Kilduff explains, "In so far as any general statement can be true, male secretaries are more likely not to possess suitable manners than are female secretaries; perhaps because it is man's nature to be more unrestrained and more independent than women, perhaps because men are not so sensitive to the effects of manners as women are and hence do not appreciate their value." Men, essentially, made bad mediums because they are too independent, more productive, and more creative than women.<br />
<br />
The work a secretary did, particularly letters, were not signed by secretaries but rather bosses, and it was important that they and their work was reflective of their employers. The secretary, ideally, was to be involved, but not necessarily thought of as a 'producer' of content--only visible as an extension rather than authority: "Letters are an expression of an executive's personality. Don't you, as a secretary, quickly spot any flaws that come to your employer's desk? Don't you judge other secretaries and their employers by the kind of letters they mail from their offices?" (Becker 11)<br />
<br />
The ideal secretary was one who was trustworthy with private data, efficient, reliable, and attractive. She, as one employer describes in ''Secretaries Who Succeed'', served as "an extension of my own brain" (37). This sentiment has been echoed in the present with new technologies such as the iPhone, Blackberries, and laptops--all of which similarly serve as both status symbols, secret-keepers, transmitters of data, and as extensions of one's consciousness.<br />
<br />
== Letter dictation in pop culture ==<br />
<br />
In ''Monty Python's Flying Circus'' episode 33, <a href=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hf0FFAFqle8>letter dictation is parodied</a>. Biggles dictates a letter to his secretary, who is confused as to exactly what words to transcribe in this exchange:<br />
[[Image:biggles.jpg|thumb|right|Biggles puts on antlers to indicate he is not dictating]]<br />
<br />
'''Secretary.''' Of Norway, is that?<br />
<br />
'''Biggles.''' Just put down what I say.<br />
<br />
'''Secretary.''' Do I put that down?<br />
<br />
'''Biggles.''' Of course you don't put that down.<br />
<br />
'''Secretary.''' Well what about that?<br />
<br />
'''Biggles.''' Look. (she types) Don't put that down. Just put down - wait a mo - wait a mo. (puts on antlers) Now, when I've got these antlers on - when I've got these antlers on I am dictating and when I take them off (takes them off) I am not dictating.<br />
<br />
'''Secretary.''' (types) I am not dictating.<br />
<br />
'''Biggles.''' What? (she types; puts the antlers on) Read that back.<br />
<br />
'''Secretary.''' Dear King Haakon, I am not dictating what?<br />
<br />
'''Biggles.''' No, no, no, you loopy brothel inmate.<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<br />
Becker, Esther R. ''Secretaries Who Succeed''. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1947.<br />
<br />
Charters, W. W. and Isadore B. Whitley. ''Summary of Report on Analysis of Secretarial Duties and Traits.'' New York: The National Junior Personell Service, Inc., 1924.<br />
<br />
Doutt, Howard M. ''Secretarial Science''. Chicago: Richard D. Irwin, Inc., 1944.<br />
<br />
"Episode 33." ''Monty Python's Flying Circus.'' BBC. 30 Nov 1972.<br />
<br />
Kilduff, Edward Jones. ''The Private Secretary''. New York: D. Appleton-Century Company, 1924.<br />
<br />
Pitman, Isaac. ''New Standard Dictation Course.'' New York: Pittman & Sons, 1933.<br />
<br />
Yates, JoAnne. ''Control Through Communication.'' Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989.</div>Torpillehttp://www.cultureandcommunication.org/deadmedia/index.php?title=Secretarial_Letter_Dictation&diff=5973Secretarial Letter Dictation2008-11-12T18:01:34Z<p>Torpille: /* References */</p>
<hr />
<div>== Basics of secretarial positions ==<br />
<br />
Secretarial work, in one form or another, has existed since writing has existed; scribes were the first incarnation, followed by clerks. With the commercialization of the typewriter in the late 1800s and their adoption in the 1900s, record-keeping and composition became increasingly integral to modern businesess and organizations. Originally, most outgoing business correspondence was handled by business owners and a hired clerk, and was usually handwritten (Yates 25). This was an incredibly time consuming, laborious process, and made record keeping confusing, as all incoming and outgoing communication was hand copied so it was impractical to keep more than one comprehensive book of correspondence (Yates 38). Speedwriting and stenography along with typing skills sped up the process of bureaucracy and were delegated to women, particularly young women, in the 1900s. <br />
<br />
The origins of the word secretary are generally agreed to be related to secret-keeping and trust. According to Edward Jones Kilduff, the word secretary "has its origin in common with the word secret, for both are derived from the Latin word secretus, which means private, secret, or pertaining to private or secret matters. Hence came the general definition of secretary as a person who is intrusted with private or secret matters; a confidential officer or attendant; a confidant" (Kilduff 3).<br />
<br />
== Secretary as mediums ==<br />
<br />
In a sense, secretarial work is a kind of 'medium' in and of itself. Secretaries receive communications from all types of sources; it is up to the secretary to determine which communications are the most pressing, and which do not deserve attention, and forward the important communications to the boss. Communications between businesses, especially letters, were not usually written by the businesspeople themselves--rather, the businessperson would speak (dictate) what was in the letter while the secretary/stenographer would write in shorthand what her supervisor dictated, and then type the letter on a typewriter with correct 'form,' meaning correcting any grammatical errors, formatting, spelling, detail work, etc. Essentially mail communications would go from a businessman to his secretary to another secretary to the businessman she represented. This was also true of phone calls and visitors: all communications had to pass through the secretary before reaching the intended recipient.<br />
<br />
Secretaries themselves still exist, but their duties have changed drastically due to email communications, word processing, and various other technologies. Letter dictation in particular is now incredibly rare, perhaps because of the common use of word processing technologies which drastically reduce the time needed to compose documents. Like the demise of the scribe due to increased literacy and printing, the stenographic duties of the secretary have diminished due to computing technologies. However, stenographers (using stenographic typewriters) are still in use in the legal system alongside voice-to-speech technology in case of computer failure.<br />
<br />
== Stenography in secretarial duties ==<br />
<br />
Stenography, or the practice of transcribing spoken word, was essential to the duties of a secretary, and a fast speed (usually of 100 words per minute), was desirable. "Except in the instances of college graduates, of persons who have received a specialized training in secretarial work, and of those who posess some exceptional qualification (a knowledge of financial matters or the ability to write well, for example), it is very difficult to obtain a position as a real private secretary without first having served an apprenticeship as a stenographer" (Kilduff 358).<br />
<br />
The importance of stenography, and particularly accurate stenography, for the secretary was expressed by George E. Roberts, vice president of National City Bank of New York City, "If my stenographer is not wholly accurate and dependable in transcribing her notes--her share of this mutual work--the effectiveness of my letter suffers. Through carelessness she has made me appear to say things I did not say, she has inclined my reader to the belief that I am ungrammatical, and by her inaccuracies in typing she has caused my letter to make an unfavorable impression. [...] Letter writing is an important function in business, and is becoming of greater importance because of the fact that transactions carried on by means of letters are rapidly increasing in number. The personal contact between a business house and its customers that existed in former years is being supplanted by a contact by letters. And all of this means that we must today make our letters more efficient. To do so we must enlist the coöperation of our stenographers to perform efficiently their share of the work of getting out good letters--letters that are accurate in transcription, correct in spelling, grammar, and punctuation, and pleasing in appearance" (Kilduff 13). This excerpt suggests that secretaries only copied exactly what was written, but frequently part of their duty was to correct wording, phrasing, and grammar, and know all of the correct formats, sort of like what Microsoft Word does with its Paperclip helper.[[Image:http://content.answers.com/main/content/wp/en-commons/thumb/a/ab/300px-Eclectic_shorthand_by_cross.png]]<br />
<br />
Many different types of speedwriting and shorthand exist, including the Pitman and Graham styles. College courses on shorthand were a popular choice for young women, and considered to be very practical. An example of this is in Sylvia Plath's novel ''The Bell Jar'', in which the Plath-based protagonist Esther's mother encourages Esther to take shorthand instead of trying to be a poet. Esther rejects this, seeing shorthand as a sure way into a subservient lifestyle.<br />
<br />
== The typewriter's role in the growth of the secretary ==<br />
<br />
In 1890, the U.S. Census reported 33,000 people employed as stenographers/typists, and by 1900, there were 134,000 people employed as stenographers, typists, and secretaries. In 1910, that number doubled; and in 1920 doubled again--786,000 secretaries (Yates 43). The typewriter allowed for a massive boom in the amount of women in the workforce: in 1871, only four percent of total commercial (business skills) school was female, and by 1900, that number leaped to 36 percent (Yates 44).<br />
<br />
Before the typewriter, letters were usually drafted and finalized by the composer of the letter--that is to say, the writer (the one who thought up the source of the material) and the writer (the one who performed the physical act of writing) were one in the same. With the advent of the typewriter, the two acts were separated entirely. According to Yates, the typewriter allowed "increasing subdivision of tasks and specialization of jobs, with the techniques of systematic management to coordinate the various specialized elements" in order to maximize efficiency. The typewriter further reduced the amount of time spent by highly paid executives on letter-writing, instead moving that task to lesser-paid secretarial workers (44). <br />
<br />
With the popularization of personal computers and word processing, this separation of composing and typing has again merged, as executives can easily write their own letters and internal communication is done increasingly through e-mail.<br />
<br />
== Secretary as extension of self ==<br />
<br />
What is particularly interesting about the secretary as a medium was the focus on her appearances, or 'poise.' While secretarial handbooks emphasize fast typing and shorthand skills along with organizational skills, each book has lengthly sections on the presentation of a secretary. As is expected, secretaries had dress requirements like we do today in offices, but even more requests on the attributes of secretaries were made. For example, a desired quality among secretaries was a pleasing voice, and to smile. Becker encourages secretaries to be 'phonogeninc' while on the telephone, at least until "television becomes a practical commercial reality" for telecommunications (73). Particular posture was requested--"Draping yourself about furniture, or leaning against files or doors as if they were lampposts is similarly condemned" (Becker 106)--and only pale nailpolish acceptable. One secretary recommends wearing blue frequently, as "[m]en almost universally like blue" (103). <br />
<br />
Manners were also essential, and women were thought to be much better at mannered speech and behavior than men, and more adept at being 'channels.' Edward Kilduff explains, "In so far as any general statement can be true, male secretaries are more likely not to possess suitable manners than are female secretaries; perhaps because it is man's nature to be more unrestrained and more independent than women, perhaps because men are not so sensitive to the effects of manners as women are and hence do not appreciate their value." Men, essentially, made bad mediums because they are too independent, more productive, and more creative than women.<br />
<br />
The work a secretary did, particularly letters, were not signed by secretaries but rather bosses, and it was important that they and their work was reflective of their employers. The secretary, ideally, was to be involved, but not necessarily thought of as a 'producer' of content--only visible as an extension rather than authority: "Letters are an expression of an executive's personality. Don't you, as a secretary, quickly spot any flaws that come to your employer's desk? Don't you judge other secretaries and their employers by the kind of letters they mail from their offices?" (Becker 11)<br />
<br />
The ideal secretary was one who was trustworthy with private data, efficient, reliable, and attractive. She, as one employer describes in ''Secretaries Who Succeed'', served as "an extension of my own brain" (37). This sentiment has been echoed in the present with new technologies such as the iPhone, Blackberries, and laptops--all of which similarly serve as both status symbols, secret-keepers, transmitters of data, and as extensions of one's consciousness.<br />
<br />
== Letter dictation in pop culture ==<br />
<br />
In ''Monty Python's Flying Circus'' episode 33, <a href=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hf0FFAFqle8>letter dictation is parodied</a>. Biggles dictates a letter to his secretary, who is confused as to exactly what words to transcribe in this exchange:<br />
[[Image:biggles.jpg|thumb|right|Biggles puts on antlers to indicate he is not dictating]]<br />
<br />
'''Secretary.''' Of Norway, is that?<br />
<br />
'''Biggles.''' Just put down what I say.<br />
<br />
'''Secretary.''' Do I put that down?<br />
<br />
'''Biggles.''' Of course you don't put that down.<br />
<br />
'''Secretary.''' Well what about that?<br />
<br />
'''Biggles.''' Look. (she types) Don't put that down. Just put down - wait a mo - wait a mo. (puts on antlers) Now, when I've got these antlers on - when I've got these antlers on I am dictating and when I take them off (takes them off) I am not dictating.<br />
<br />
'''Secretary.''' (types) I am not dictating.<br />
<br />
'''Biggles.''' What? (she types; puts the antlers on) Read that back.<br />
<br />
'''Secretary.''' Dear King Haakon, I am not dictating what?<br />
<br />
'''Biggles.''' No, no, no, you loopy brothel inmate.<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<br />
Becker, Esther R. ''Secretaries Who Succeed''. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1947.<br />
<br />
Charters, W. W. and Isadore B. Whitley. ''Summary of Report on Analysis of Secretarial Duties and Traits.'' New York: The National Junior Personell Service, Inc., 1924.<br />
<br />
Doutt, Howard M. ''Secretarial Science''. Chicago: Richard D. Irwin, Inc., 1944.<br />
<br />
"Episode 33." ''Monty Python's Flying Circus.'' BBC. 30 Nov 1972.<br />
<br />
Kilduff, Edward Jones. ''The Private Secretary''. New York: D. Appleton-Century Company, 1924.<br />
<br />
Pitman, Isaac. ''New Standard Dictation Course.'' New York: Pittman & Sons, 1933.<br />
<br />
Yates, JoAnne. ''Control Through Communication.'' Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989.</div>Torpillehttp://www.cultureandcommunication.org/deadmedia/index.php?title=Secretarial_Letter_Dictation&diff=5971Secretarial Letter Dictation2008-11-12T17:53:41Z<p>Torpille: /* Letter dictation in pop culture */</p>
<hr />
<div>== Basics of secretarial positions ==<br />
<br />
Secretarial work, in one form or another, has existed since writing has existed; scribes were the first incarnation, followed by clerks. With the commercialization of the typewriter in the late 1800s and their adoption in the 1900s, record-keeping and composition became increasingly integral to modern businesess and organizations. Originally, most outgoing business correspondence was handled by business owners and a hired clerk, and was usually handwritten (Yates 25). This was an incredibly time consuming, laborious process, and made record keeping confusing, as all incoming and outgoing communication was hand copied so it was impractical to keep more than one comprehensive book of correspondence (Yates 38). Speedwriting and stenography along with typing skills sped up the process of bureaucracy and were delegated to women, particularly young women, in the 1900s. <br />
<br />
The origins of the word secretary are generally agreed to be related to secret-keeping and trust. According to Edward Jones Kilduff, the word secretary "has its origin in common with the word secret, for both are derived from the Latin word secretus, which means private, secret, or pertaining to private or secret matters. Hence came the general definition of secretary as a person who is intrusted with private or secret matters; a confidential officer or attendant; a confidant" (Kilduff 3).<br />
<br />
== Secretary as mediums ==<br />
<br />
In a sense, secretarial work is a kind of 'medium' in and of itself. Secretaries receive communications from all types of sources; it is up to the secretary to determine which communications are the most pressing, and which do not deserve attention, and forward the important communications to the boss. Communications between businesses, especially letters, were not usually written by the businesspeople themselves--rather, the businessperson would speak (dictate) what was in the letter while the secretary/stenographer would write in shorthand what her supervisor dictated, and then type the letter on a typewriter with correct 'form,' meaning correcting any grammatical errors, formatting, spelling, detail work, etc. Essentially mail communications would go from a businessman to his secretary to another secretary to the businessman she represented. This was also true of phone calls and visitors: all communications had to pass through the secretary before reaching the intended recipient.<br />
<br />
Secretaries themselves still exist, but their duties have changed drastically due to email communications, word processing, and various other technologies. Letter dictation in particular is now incredibly rare, perhaps because of the common use of word processing technologies which drastically reduce the time needed to compose documents. Like the demise of the scribe due to increased literacy and printing, the stenographic duties of the secretary have diminished due to computing technologies. However, stenographers (using stenographic typewriters) are still in use in the legal system alongside voice-to-speech technology in case of computer failure.<br />
<br />
== Stenography in secretarial duties ==<br />
<br />
Stenography, or the practice of transcribing spoken word, was essential to the duties of a secretary, and a fast speed (usually of 100 words per minute), was desirable. "Except in the instances of college graduates, of persons who have received a specialized training in secretarial work, and of those who posess some exceptional qualification (a knowledge of financial matters or the ability to write well, for example), it is very difficult to obtain a position as a real private secretary without first having served an apprenticeship as a stenographer" (Kilduff 358).<br />
<br />
The importance of stenography, and particularly accurate stenography, for the secretary was expressed by George E. Roberts, vice president of National City Bank of New York City, "If my stenographer is not wholly accurate and dependable in transcribing her notes--her share of this mutual work--the effectiveness of my letter suffers. Through carelessness she has made me appear to say things I did not say, she has inclined my reader to the belief that I am ungrammatical, and by her inaccuracies in typing she has caused my letter to make an unfavorable impression. [...] Letter writing is an important function in business, and is becoming of greater importance because of the fact that transactions carried on by means of letters are rapidly increasing in number. The personal contact between a business house and its customers that existed in former years is being supplanted by a contact by letters. And all of this means that we must today make our letters more efficient. To do so we must enlist the coöperation of our stenographers to perform efficiently their share of the work of getting out good letters--letters that are accurate in transcription, correct in spelling, grammar, and punctuation, and pleasing in appearance" (Kilduff 13). This excerpt suggests that secretaries only copied exactly what was written, but frequently part of their duty was to correct wording, phrasing, and grammar, and know all of the correct formats, sort of like what Microsoft Word does with its Paperclip helper.[[Image:http://content.answers.com/main/content/wp/en-commons/thumb/a/ab/300px-Eclectic_shorthand_by_cross.png]]<br />
<br />
Many different types of speedwriting and shorthand exist, including the Pitman and Graham styles. College courses on shorthand were a popular choice for young women, and considered to be very practical. An example of this is in Sylvia Plath's novel ''The Bell Jar'', in which the Plath-based protagonist Esther's mother encourages Esther to take shorthand instead of trying to be a poet. Esther rejects this, seeing shorthand as a sure way into a subservient lifestyle.<br />
<br />
== The typewriter's role in the growth of the secretary ==<br />
<br />
In 1890, the U.S. Census reported 33,000 people employed as stenographers/typists, and by 1900, there were 134,000 people employed as stenographers, typists, and secretaries. In 1910, that number doubled; and in 1920 doubled again--786,000 secretaries (Yates 43). The typewriter allowed for a massive boom in the amount of women in the workforce: in 1871, only four percent of total commercial (business skills) school was female, and by 1900, that number leaped to 36 percent (Yates 44).<br />
<br />
Before the typewriter, letters were usually drafted and finalized by the composer of the letter--that is to say, the writer (the one who thought up the source of the material) and the writer (the one who performed the physical act of writing) were one in the same. With the advent of the typewriter, the two acts were separated entirely. According to Yates, the typewriter allowed "increasing subdivision of tasks and specialization of jobs, with the techniques of systematic management to coordinate the various specialized elements" in order to maximize efficiency. The typewriter further reduced the amount of time spent by highly paid executives on letter-writing, instead moving that task to lesser-paid secretarial workers (44). <br />
<br />
With the popularization of personal computers and word processing, this separation of composing and typing has again merged, as executives can easily write their own letters and internal communication is done increasingly through e-mail.<br />
<br />
== Secretary as extension of self ==<br />
<br />
What is particularly interesting about the secretary as a medium was the focus on her appearances, or 'poise.' While secretarial handbooks emphasize fast typing and shorthand skills along with organizational skills, each book has lengthly sections on the presentation of a secretary. As is expected, secretaries had dress requirements like we do today in offices, but even more requests on the attributes of secretaries were made. For example, a desired quality among secretaries was a pleasing voice, and to smile. Becker encourages secretaries to be 'phonogeninc' while on the telephone, at least until "television becomes a practical commercial reality" for telecommunications (73). Particular posture was requested--"Draping yourself about furniture, or leaning against files or doors as if they were lampposts is similarly condemned" (Becker 106)--and only pale nailpolish acceptable. One secretary recommends wearing blue frequently, as "[m]en almost universally like blue" (103). <br />
<br />
Manners were also essential, and women were thought to be much better at mannered speech and behavior than men, and more adept at being 'channels.' Edward Kilduff explains, "In so far as any general statement can be true, male secretaries are more likely not to possess suitable manners than are female secretaries; perhaps because it is man's nature to be more unrestrained and more independent than women, perhaps because men are not so sensitive to the effects of manners as women are and hence do not appreciate their value." Men, essentially, made bad mediums because they are too independent, more productive, and more creative than women.<br />
<br />
The work a secretary did, particularly letters, were not signed by secretaries but rather bosses, and it was important that they and their work was reflective of their employers. The secretary, ideally, was to be involved, but not necessarily thought of as a 'producer' of content--only visible as an extension rather than authority: "Letters are an expression of an executive's personality. Don't you, as a secretary, quickly spot any flaws that come to your employer's desk? Don't you judge other secretaries and their employers by the kind of letters they mail from their offices?" (Becker 11)<br />
<br />
The ideal secretary was one who was trustworthy with private data, efficient, reliable, and attractive. She, as one employer describes in ''Secretaries Who Succeed'', served as "an extension of my own brain" (37). This sentiment has been echoed in the present with new technologies such as the iPhone, Blackberries, and laptops--all of which similarly serve as both status symbols, secret-keepers, transmitters of data, and as extensions of one's consciousness.<br />
<br />
== Letter dictation in pop culture ==<br />
<br />
In ''Monty Python's Flying Circus'' episode 33, <a href=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hf0FFAFqle8>letter dictation is parodied</a>. Biggles dictates a letter to his secretary, who is confused as to exactly what words to transcribe in this exchange:<br />
[[Image:biggles.jpg|thumb|right|Biggles puts on antlers to indicate he is not dictating]]<br />
<br />
'''Secretary.''' Of Norway, is that?<br />
<br />
'''Biggles.''' Just put down what I say.<br />
<br />
'''Secretary.''' Do I put that down?<br />
<br />
'''Biggles.''' Of course you don't put that down.<br />
<br />
'''Secretary.''' Well what about that?<br />
<br />
'''Biggles.''' Look. (she types) Don't put that down. Just put down - wait a mo - wait a mo. (puts on antlers) Now, when I've got these antlers on - when I've got these antlers on I am dictating and when I take them off (takes them off) I am not dictating.<br />
<br />
'''Secretary.''' (types) I am not dictating.<br />
<br />
'''Biggles.''' What? (she types; puts the antlers on) Read that back.<br />
<br />
'''Secretary.''' Dear King Haakon, I am not dictating what?<br />
<br />
'''Biggles.''' No, no, no, you loopy brothel inmate.<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<br />
Becker, Esther R. ''Secretaries Who Succeed''. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1947.<br />
<br />
Charters, W. W. and Isadore B. Whitley. ''Summary of Report on Analysis of Secretarial Duties and Traits.'' New York: The National Junior Personell Service, Inc., 1924.<br />
<br />
Doutt, Howard M. ''Secretarial Science''. Chicago: Richard D. Irwin, Inc., 1944.<br />
<br />
Kilduff, Edward Jones. ''The Private Secretary''. New York: D. Appleton-Century Company, 1924.<br />
<br />
Pitman, Isaac. ''New Standard Dictation Course.'' New York: Pittman & Sons, 1933.</div>Torpillehttp://www.cultureandcommunication.org/deadmedia/index.php?title=File:Biggles.jpg&diff=5970File:Biggles.jpg2008-11-12T17:49:17Z<p>Torpille: Biggles puts on antlers to indicate that he is not dictating.</p>
<hr />
<div>Biggles puts on antlers to indicate that he is not dictating.</div>Torpillehttp://www.cultureandcommunication.org/deadmedia/index.php?title=Secretarial_Letter_Dictation&diff=5969Secretarial Letter Dictation2008-11-12T17:46:53Z<p>Torpille: /* Letter dictation in pop culture */</p>
<hr />
<div>== Basics of secretarial positions ==<br />
<br />
Secretarial work, in one form or another, has existed since writing has existed; scribes were the first incarnation, followed by clerks. With the commercialization of the typewriter in the late 1800s and their adoption in the 1900s, record-keeping and composition became increasingly integral to modern businesess and organizations. Originally, most outgoing business correspondence was handled by business owners and a hired clerk, and was usually handwritten (Yates 25). This was an incredibly time consuming, laborious process, and made record keeping confusing, as all incoming and outgoing communication was hand copied so it was impractical to keep more than one comprehensive book of correspondence (Yates 38). Speedwriting and stenography along with typing skills sped up the process of bureaucracy and were delegated to women, particularly young women, in the 1900s. <br />
<br />
The origins of the word secretary are generally agreed to be related to secret-keeping and trust. According to Edward Jones Kilduff, the word secretary "has its origin in common with the word secret, for both are derived from the Latin word secretus, which means private, secret, or pertaining to private or secret matters. Hence came the general definition of secretary as a person who is intrusted with private or secret matters; a confidential officer or attendant; a confidant" (Kilduff 3).<br />
<br />
== Secretary as mediums ==<br />
<br />
In a sense, secretarial work is a kind of 'medium' in and of itself. Secretaries receive communications from all types of sources; it is up to the secretary to determine which communications are the most pressing, and which do not deserve attention, and forward the important communications to the boss. Communications between businesses, especially letters, were not usually written by the businesspeople themselves--rather, the businessperson would speak (dictate) what was in the letter while the secretary/stenographer would write in shorthand what her supervisor dictated, and then type the letter on a typewriter with correct 'form,' meaning correcting any grammatical errors, formatting, spelling, detail work, etc. Essentially mail communications would go from a businessman to his secretary to another secretary to the businessman she represented. This was also true of phone calls and visitors: all communications had to pass through the secretary before reaching the intended recipient.<br />
<br />
Secretaries themselves still exist, but their duties have changed drastically due to email communications, word processing, and various other technologies. Letter dictation in particular is now incredibly rare, perhaps because of the common use of word processing technologies which drastically reduce the time needed to compose documents. Like the demise of the scribe due to increased literacy and printing, the stenographic duties of the secretary have diminished due to computing technologies. However, stenographers (using stenographic typewriters) are still in use in the legal system alongside voice-to-speech technology in case of computer failure.<br />
<br />
== Stenography in secretarial duties ==<br />
<br />
Stenography, or the practice of transcribing spoken word, was essential to the duties of a secretary, and a fast speed (usually of 100 words per minute), was desirable. "Except in the instances of college graduates, of persons who have received a specialized training in secretarial work, and of those who posess some exceptional qualification (a knowledge of financial matters or the ability to write well, for example), it is very difficult to obtain a position as a real private secretary without first having served an apprenticeship as a stenographer" (Kilduff 358).<br />
<br />
The importance of stenography, and particularly accurate stenography, for the secretary was expressed by George E. Roberts, vice president of National City Bank of New York City, "If my stenographer is not wholly accurate and dependable in transcribing her notes--her share of this mutual work--the effectiveness of my letter suffers. Through carelessness she has made me appear to say things I did not say, she has inclined my reader to the belief that I am ungrammatical, and by her inaccuracies in typing she has caused my letter to make an unfavorable impression. [...] Letter writing is an important function in business, and is becoming of greater importance because of the fact that transactions carried on by means of letters are rapidly increasing in number. The personal contact between a business house and its customers that existed in former years is being supplanted by a contact by letters. And all of this means that we must today make our letters more efficient. To do so we must enlist the coöperation of our stenographers to perform efficiently their share of the work of getting out good letters--letters that are accurate in transcription, correct in spelling, grammar, and punctuation, and pleasing in appearance" (Kilduff 13). This excerpt suggests that secretaries only copied exactly what was written, but frequently part of their duty was to correct wording, phrasing, and grammar, and know all of the correct formats, sort of like what Microsoft Word does with its Paperclip helper.[[Image:http://content.answers.com/main/content/wp/en-commons/thumb/a/ab/300px-Eclectic_shorthand_by_cross.png]]<br />
<br />
Many different types of speedwriting and shorthand exist, including the Pitman and Graham styles. College courses on shorthand were a popular choice for young women, and considered to be very practical. An example of this is in Sylvia Plath's novel ''The Bell Jar'', in which the Plath-based protagonist Esther's mother encourages Esther to take shorthand instead of trying to be a poet. Esther rejects this, seeing shorthand as a sure way into a subservient lifestyle.<br />
<br />
== The typewriter's role in the growth of the secretary ==<br />
<br />
In 1890, the U.S. Census reported 33,000 people employed as stenographers/typists, and by 1900, there were 134,000 people employed as stenographers, typists, and secretaries. In 1910, that number doubled; and in 1920 doubled again--786,000 secretaries (Yates 43). The typewriter allowed for a massive boom in the amount of women in the workforce: in 1871, only four percent of total commercial (business skills) school was female, and by 1900, that number leaped to 36 percent (Yates 44).<br />
<br />
Before the typewriter, letters were usually drafted and finalized by the composer of the letter--that is to say, the writer (the one who thought up the source of the material) and the writer (the one who performed the physical act of writing) were one in the same. With the advent of the typewriter, the two acts were separated entirely. According to Yates, the typewriter allowed "increasing subdivision of tasks and specialization of jobs, with the techniques of systematic management to coordinate the various specialized elements" in order to maximize efficiency. The typewriter further reduced the amount of time spent by highly paid executives on letter-writing, instead moving that task to lesser-paid secretarial workers (44). <br />
<br />
With the popularization of personal computers and word processing, this separation of composing and typing has again merged, as executives can easily write their own letters and internal communication is done increasingly through e-mail.<br />
<br />
== Secretary as extension of self ==<br />
<br />
What is particularly interesting about the secretary as a medium was the focus on her appearances, or 'poise.' While secretarial handbooks emphasize fast typing and shorthand skills along with organizational skills, each book has lengthly sections on the presentation of a secretary. As is expected, secretaries had dress requirements like we do today in offices, but even more requests on the attributes of secretaries were made. For example, a desired quality among secretaries was a pleasing voice, and to smile. Becker encourages secretaries to be 'phonogeninc' while on the telephone, at least until "television becomes a practical commercial reality" for telecommunications (73). Particular posture was requested--"Draping yourself about furniture, or leaning against files or doors as if they were lampposts is similarly condemned" (Becker 106)--and only pale nailpolish acceptable. One secretary recommends wearing blue frequently, as "[m]en almost universally like blue" (103). <br />
<br />
Manners were also essential, and women were thought to be much better at mannered speech and behavior than men, and more adept at being 'channels.' Edward Kilduff explains, "In so far as any general statement can be true, male secretaries are more likely not to possess suitable manners than are female secretaries; perhaps because it is man's nature to be more unrestrained and more independent than women, perhaps because men are not so sensitive to the effects of manners as women are and hence do not appreciate their value." Men, essentially, made bad mediums because they are too independent, more productive, and more creative than women.<br />
<br />
The work a secretary did, particularly letters, were not signed by secretaries but rather bosses, and it was important that they and their work was reflective of their employers. The secretary, ideally, was to be involved, but not necessarily thought of as a 'producer' of content--only visible as an extension rather than authority: "Letters are an expression of an executive's personality. Don't you, as a secretary, quickly spot any flaws that come to your employer's desk? Don't you judge other secretaries and their employers by the kind of letters they mail from their offices?" (Becker 11)<br />
<br />
The ideal secretary was one who was trustworthy with private data, efficient, reliable, and attractive. She, as one employer describes in ''Secretaries Who Succeed'', served as "an extension of my own brain" (37). This sentiment has been echoed in the present with new technologies such as the iPhone, Blackberries, and laptops--all of which similarly serve as both status symbols, secret-keepers, transmitters of data, and as extensions of one's consciousness.<br />
<br />
== Letter dictation in pop culture ==<br />
<br />
In ''Monty Python's Flying Circus'' episode 33, letter dictation is parodied. Biggles dictates a letter to his secretary, who is confused as to exactly what words to transcribe in this exchange:<br />
[[Image:biggles.jpg]]<br />
<br />
'''Secretary''' Of Norway, is that?<br />
<br />
'''Biggles''' Just put down what I say.<br />
<br />
'''Secretary''' Do I put that down?<br />
<br />
'''Biggles''' Of course you don't put that down.<br />
<br />
'''Secretary''' Well what about that?<br />
<br />
'''Biggles''' Look. (she types) Don't put that down. Just put down - wait a mo - wait a mo. (puts on antlers) Now, when I've got these antlers on - when I've got these antlers on I am dictating and when I take them off (takes them off) I am not dictating.<br />
<br />
'''Secretary''' (types) I am not dictating.<br />
<br />
'''Biggles''' What? (she types; puts the antlers on) Read that back.<br />
<br />
'''Secretary''' Dear King Haakon, I am not dictating what?<br />
<br />
'''Biggles''' No, no, no, you loopy brothel inmate.<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<br />
Becker, Esther R. ''Secretaries Who Succeed''. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1947.<br />
<br />
Charters, W. W. and Isadore B. Whitley. ''Summary of Report on Analysis of Secretarial Duties and Traits.'' New York: The National Junior Personell Service, Inc., 1924.<br />
<br />
Doutt, Howard M. ''Secretarial Science''. Chicago: Richard D. Irwin, Inc., 1944.<br />
<br />
Kilduff, Edward Jones. ''The Private Secretary''. New York: D. Appleton-Century Company, 1924.<br />
<br />
Pitman, Isaac. ''New Standard Dictation Course.'' New York: Pittman & Sons, 1933.</div>Torpillehttp://www.cultureandcommunication.org/deadmedia/index.php?title=Secretarial_Letter_Dictation&diff=5968Secretarial Letter Dictation2008-11-12T17:46:17Z<p>Torpille: /* Letter dictation in pop culture */</p>
<hr />
<div>== Basics of secretarial positions ==<br />
<br />
Secretarial work, in one form or another, has existed since writing has existed; scribes were the first incarnation, followed by clerks. With the commercialization of the typewriter in the late 1800s and their adoption in the 1900s, record-keeping and composition became increasingly integral to modern businesess and organizations. Originally, most outgoing business correspondence was handled by business owners and a hired clerk, and was usually handwritten (Yates 25). This was an incredibly time consuming, laborious process, and made record keeping confusing, as all incoming and outgoing communication was hand copied so it was impractical to keep more than one comprehensive book of correspondence (Yates 38). Speedwriting and stenography along with typing skills sped up the process of bureaucracy and were delegated to women, particularly young women, in the 1900s. <br />
<br />
The origins of the word secretary are generally agreed to be related to secret-keeping and trust. According to Edward Jones Kilduff, the word secretary "has its origin in common with the word secret, for both are derived from the Latin word secretus, which means private, secret, or pertaining to private or secret matters. Hence came the general definition of secretary as a person who is intrusted with private or secret matters; a confidential officer or attendant; a confidant" (Kilduff 3).<br />
<br />
== Secretary as mediums ==<br />
<br />
In a sense, secretarial work is a kind of 'medium' in and of itself. Secretaries receive communications from all types of sources; it is up to the secretary to determine which communications are the most pressing, and which do not deserve attention, and forward the important communications to the boss. Communications between businesses, especially letters, were not usually written by the businesspeople themselves--rather, the businessperson would speak (dictate) what was in the letter while the secretary/stenographer would write in shorthand what her supervisor dictated, and then type the letter on a typewriter with correct 'form,' meaning correcting any grammatical errors, formatting, spelling, detail work, etc. Essentially mail communications would go from a businessman to his secretary to another secretary to the businessman she represented. This was also true of phone calls and visitors: all communications had to pass through the secretary before reaching the intended recipient.<br />
<br />
Secretaries themselves still exist, but their duties have changed drastically due to email communications, word processing, and various other technologies. Letter dictation in particular is now incredibly rare, perhaps because of the common use of word processing technologies which drastically reduce the time needed to compose documents. Like the demise of the scribe due to increased literacy and printing, the stenographic duties of the secretary have diminished due to computing technologies. However, stenographers (using stenographic typewriters) are still in use in the legal system alongside voice-to-speech technology in case of computer failure.<br />
<br />
== Stenography in secretarial duties ==<br />
<br />
Stenography, or the practice of transcribing spoken word, was essential to the duties of a secretary, and a fast speed (usually of 100 words per minute), was desirable. "Except in the instances of college graduates, of persons who have received a specialized training in secretarial work, and of those who posess some exceptional qualification (a knowledge of financial matters or the ability to write well, for example), it is very difficult to obtain a position as a real private secretary without first having served an apprenticeship as a stenographer" (Kilduff 358).<br />
<br />
The importance of stenography, and particularly accurate stenography, for the secretary was expressed by George E. Roberts, vice president of National City Bank of New York City, "If my stenographer is not wholly accurate and dependable in transcribing her notes--her share of this mutual work--the effectiveness of my letter suffers. Through carelessness she has made me appear to say things I did not say, she has inclined my reader to the belief that I am ungrammatical, and by her inaccuracies in typing she has caused my letter to make an unfavorable impression. [...] Letter writing is an important function in business, and is becoming of greater importance because of the fact that transactions carried on by means of letters are rapidly increasing in number. The personal contact between a business house and its customers that existed in former years is being supplanted by a contact by letters. And all of this means that we must today make our letters more efficient. To do so we must enlist the coöperation of our stenographers to perform efficiently their share of the work of getting out good letters--letters that are accurate in transcription, correct in spelling, grammar, and punctuation, and pleasing in appearance" (Kilduff 13). This excerpt suggests that secretaries only copied exactly what was written, but frequently part of their duty was to correct wording, phrasing, and grammar, and know all of the correct formats, sort of like what Microsoft Word does with its Paperclip helper.[[Image:http://content.answers.com/main/content/wp/en-commons/thumb/a/ab/300px-Eclectic_shorthand_by_cross.png]]<br />
<br />
Many different types of speedwriting and shorthand exist, including the Pitman and Graham styles. College courses on shorthand were a popular choice for young women, and considered to be very practical. An example of this is in Sylvia Plath's novel ''The Bell Jar'', in which the Plath-based protagonist Esther's mother encourages Esther to take shorthand instead of trying to be a poet. Esther rejects this, seeing shorthand as a sure way into a subservient lifestyle.<br />
<br />
== The typewriter's role in the growth of the secretary ==<br />
<br />
In 1890, the U.S. Census reported 33,000 people employed as stenographers/typists, and by 1900, there were 134,000 people employed as stenographers, typists, and secretaries. In 1910, that number doubled; and in 1920 doubled again--786,000 secretaries (Yates 43). The typewriter allowed for a massive boom in the amount of women in the workforce: in 1871, only four percent of total commercial (business skills) school was female, and by 1900, that number leaped to 36 percent (Yates 44).<br />
<br />
Before the typewriter, letters were usually drafted and finalized by the composer of the letter--that is to say, the writer (the one who thought up the source of the material) and the writer (the one who performed the physical act of writing) were one in the same. With the advent of the typewriter, the two acts were separated entirely. According to Yates, the typewriter allowed "increasing subdivision of tasks and specialization of jobs, with the techniques of systematic management to coordinate the various specialized elements" in order to maximize efficiency. The typewriter further reduced the amount of time spent by highly paid executives on letter-writing, instead moving that task to lesser-paid secretarial workers (44). <br />
<br />
With the popularization of personal computers and word processing, this separation of composing and typing has again merged, as executives can easily write their own letters and internal communication is done increasingly through e-mail.<br />
<br />
== Secretary as extension of self ==<br />
<br />
What is particularly interesting about the secretary as a medium was the focus on her appearances, or 'poise.' While secretarial handbooks emphasize fast typing and shorthand skills along with organizational skills, each book has lengthly sections on the presentation of a secretary. As is expected, secretaries had dress requirements like we do today in offices, but even more requests on the attributes of secretaries were made. For example, a desired quality among secretaries was a pleasing voice, and to smile. Becker encourages secretaries to be 'phonogeninc' while on the telephone, at least until "television becomes a practical commercial reality" for telecommunications (73). Particular posture was requested--"Draping yourself about furniture, or leaning against files or doors as if they were lampposts is similarly condemned" (Becker 106)--and only pale nailpolish acceptable. One secretary recommends wearing blue frequently, as "[m]en almost universally like blue" (103). <br />
<br />
Manners were also essential, and women were thought to be much better at mannered speech and behavior than men, and more adept at being 'channels.' Edward Kilduff explains, "In so far as any general statement can be true, male secretaries are more likely not to possess suitable manners than are female secretaries; perhaps because it is man's nature to be more unrestrained and more independent than women, perhaps because men are not so sensitive to the effects of manners as women are and hence do not appreciate their value." Men, essentially, made bad mediums because they are too independent, more productive, and more creative than women.<br />
<br />
The work a secretary did, particularly letters, were not signed by secretaries but rather bosses, and it was important that they and their work was reflective of their employers. The secretary, ideally, was to be involved, but not necessarily thought of as a 'producer' of content--only visible as an extension rather than authority: "Letters are an expression of an executive's personality. Don't you, as a secretary, quickly spot any flaws that come to your employer's desk? Don't you judge other secretaries and their employers by the kind of letters they mail from their offices?" (Becker 11)<br />
<br />
The ideal secretary was one who was trustworthy with private data, efficient, reliable, and attractive. She, as one employer describes in ''Secretaries Who Succeed'', served as "an extension of my own brain" (37). This sentiment has been echoed in the present with new technologies such as the iPhone, Blackberries, and laptops--all of which similarly serve as both status symbols, secret-keepers, transmitters of data, and as extensions of one's consciousness.<br />
<br />
== Letter dictation in pop culture ==<br />
<br />
In ''Monty Python's Flying Circus'' episode 33, letter dictation is parodied. Biggles dictates a letter to his secretary, who is confused as to exactly what words to transcribe in this exchange:<br />
[[Image:Example.jpg]]<br />
<br />
'''Secretary''' Of Norway, is that?<br />
<br />
'''Biggles''' Just put down what I say.<br />
<br />
'''Secretary''' Do I put that down?<br />
<br />
'''Biggles''' Of course you don't put that down.<br />
<br />
'''Secretary''' Well what about that?<br />
<br />
'''Biggles''' Look. (she types) Don't put that down. Just put down - wait a mo - wait a mo. (puts on antlers) Now, when I've got these antlers on - when I've got these antlers on I am dictating and when I take them off (takes them off) I am not dictating.<br />
<br />
'''Secretary''' (types) I am not dictating.<br />
<br />
'''Biggles''' What? (she types; puts the antlers on) Read that back.<br />
<br />
'''Secretary''' Dear King Haakon, I am not dictating what?<br />
<br />
'''Biggles''' No, no, no, you loopy brothel inmate.<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<br />
Becker, Esther R. ''Secretaries Who Succeed''. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1947.<br />
<br />
Charters, W. W. and Isadore B. Whitley. ''Summary of Report on Analysis of Secretarial Duties and Traits.'' New York: The National Junior Personell Service, Inc., 1924.<br />
<br />
Doutt, Howard M. ''Secretarial Science''. Chicago: Richard D. Irwin, Inc., 1944.<br />
<br />
Kilduff, Edward Jones. ''The Private Secretary''. New York: D. Appleton-Century Company, 1924.<br />
<br />
Pitman, Isaac. ''New Standard Dictation Course.'' New York: Pittman & Sons, 1933.</div>Torpillehttp://www.cultureandcommunication.org/deadmedia/index.php?title=Secretarial_Letter_Dictation&diff=5967Secretarial Letter Dictation2008-11-12T17:45:52Z<p>Torpille: /* Letter dictation in pop culture */</p>
<hr />
<div>== Basics of secretarial positions ==<br />
<br />
Secretarial work, in one form or another, has existed since writing has existed; scribes were the first incarnation, followed by clerks. With the commercialization of the typewriter in the late 1800s and their adoption in the 1900s, record-keeping and composition became increasingly integral to modern businesess and organizations. Originally, most outgoing business correspondence was handled by business owners and a hired clerk, and was usually handwritten (Yates 25). This was an incredibly time consuming, laborious process, and made record keeping confusing, as all incoming and outgoing communication was hand copied so it was impractical to keep more than one comprehensive book of correspondence (Yates 38). Speedwriting and stenography along with typing skills sped up the process of bureaucracy and were delegated to women, particularly young women, in the 1900s. <br />
<br />
The origins of the word secretary are generally agreed to be related to secret-keeping and trust. According to Edward Jones Kilduff, the word secretary "has its origin in common with the word secret, for both are derived from the Latin word secretus, which means private, secret, or pertaining to private or secret matters. Hence came the general definition of secretary as a person who is intrusted with private or secret matters; a confidential officer or attendant; a confidant" (Kilduff 3).<br />
<br />
== Secretary as mediums ==<br />
<br />
In a sense, secretarial work is a kind of 'medium' in and of itself. Secretaries receive communications from all types of sources; it is up to the secretary to determine which communications are the most pressing, and which do not deserve attention, and forward the important communications to the boss. Communications between businesses, especially letters, were not usually written by the businesspeople themselves--rather, the businessperson would speak (dictate) what was in the letter while the secretary/stenographer would write in shorthand what her supervisor dictated, and then type the letter on a typewriter with correct 'form,' meaning correcting any grammatical errors, formatting, spelling, detail work, etc. Essentially mail communications would go from a businessman to his secretary to another secretary to the businessman she represented. This was also true of phone calls and visitors: all communications had to pass through the secretary before reaching the intended recipient.<br />
<br />
Secretaries themselves still exist, but their duties have changed drastically due to email communications, word processing, and various other technologies. Letter dictation in particular is now incredibly rare, perhaps because of the common use of word processing technologies which drastically reduce the time needed to compose documents. Like the demise of the scribe due to increased literacy and printing, the stenographic duties of the secretary have diminished due to computing technologies. However, stenographers (using stenographic typewriters) are still in use in the legal system alongside voice-to-speech technology in case of computer failure.<br />
<br />
== Stenography in secretarial duties ==<br />
<br />
Stenography, or the practice of transcribing spoken word, was essential to the duties of a secretary, and a fast speed (usually of 100 words per minute), was desirable. "Except in the instances of college graduates, of persons who have received a specialized training in secretarial work, and of those who posess some exceptional qualification (a knowledge of financial matters or the ability to write well, for example), it is very difficult to obtain a position as a real private secretary without first having served an apprenticeship as a stenographer" (Kilduff 358).<br />
<br />
The importance of stenography, and particularly accurate stenography, for the secretary was expressed by George E. Roberts, vice president of National City Bank of New York City, "If my stenographer is not wholly accurate and dependable in transcribing her notes--her share of this mutual work--the effectiveness of my letter suffers. Through carelessness she has made me appear to say things I did not say, she has inclined my reader to the belief that I am ungrammatical, and by her inaccuracies in typing she has caused my letter to make an unfavorable impression. [...] Letter writing is an important function in business, and is becoming of greater importance because of the fact that transactions carried on by means of letters are rapidly increasing in number. The personal contact between a business house and its customers that existed in former years is being supplanted by a contact by letters. And all of this means that we must today make our letters more efficient. To do so we must enlist the coöperation of our stenographers to perform efficiently their share of the work of getting out good letters--letters that are accurate in transcription, correct in spelling, grammar, and punctuation, and pleasing in appearance" (Kilduff 13). This excerpt suggests that secretaries only copied exactly what was written, but frequently part of their duty was to correct wording, phrasing, and grammar, and know all of the correct formats, sort of like what Microsoft Word does with its Paperclip helper.[[Image:http://content.answers.com/main/content/wp/en-commons/thumb/a/ab/300px-Eclectic_shorthand_by_cross.png]]<br />
<br />
Many different types of speedwriting and shorthand exist, including the Pitman and Graham styles. College courses on shorthand were a popular choice for young women, and considered to be very practical. An example of this is in Sylvia Plath's novel ''The Bell Jar'', in which the Plath-based protagonist Esther's mother encourages Esther to take shorthand instead of trying to be a poet. Esther rejects this, seeing shorthand as a sure way into a subservient lifestyle.<br />
<br />
== The typewriter's role in the growth of the secretary ==<br />
<br />
In 1890, the U.S. Census reported 33,000 people employed as stenographers/typists, and by 1900, there were 134,000 people employed as stenographers, typists, and secretaries. In 1910, that number doubled; and in 1920 doubled again--786,000 secretaries (Yates 43). The typewriter allowed for a massive boom in the amount of women in the workforce: in 1871, only four percent of total commercial (business skills) school was female, and by 1900, that number leaped to 36 percent (Yates 44).<br />
<br />
Before the typewriter, letters were usually drafted and finalized by the composer of the letter--that is to say, the writer (the one who thought up the source of the material) and the writer (the one who performed the physical act of writing) were one in the same. With the advent of the typewriter, the two acts were separated entirely. According to Yates, the typewriter allowed "increasing subdivision of tasks and specialization of jobs, with the techniques of systematic management to coordinate the various specialized elements" in order to maximize efficiency. The typewriter further reduced the amount of time spent by highly paid executives on letter-writing, instead moving that task to lesser-paid secretarial workers (44). <br />
<br />
With the popularization of personal computers and word processing, this separation of composing and typing has again merged, as executives can easily write their own letters and internal communication is done increasingly through e-mail.<br />
<br />
== Secretary as extension of self ==<br />
<br />
What is particularly interesting about the secretary as a medium was the focus on her appearances, or 'poise.' While secretarial handbooks emphasize fast typing and shorthand skills along with organizational skills, each book has lengthly sections on the presentation of a secretary. As is expected, secretaries had dress requirements like we do today in offices, but even more requests on the attributes of secretaries were made. For example, a desired quality among secretaries was a pleasing voice, and to smile. Becker encourages secretaries to be 'phonogeninc' while on the telephone, at least until "television becomes a practical commercial reality" for telecommunications (73). Particular posture was requested--"Draping yourself about furniture, or leaning against files or doors as if they were lampposts is similarly condemned" (Becker 106)--and only pale nailpolish acceptable. One secretary recommends wearing blue frequently, as "[m]en almost universally like blue" (103). <br />
<br />
Manners were also essential, and women were thought to be much better at mannered speech and behavior than men, and more adept at being 'channels.' Edward Kilduff explains, "In so far as any general statement can be true, male secretaries are more likely not to possess suitable manners than are female secretaries; perhaps because it is man's nature to be more unrestrained and more independent than women, perhaps because men are not so sensitive to the effects of manners as women are and hence do not appreciate their value." Men, essentially, made bad mediums because they are too independent, more productive, and more creative than women.<br />
<br />
The work a secretary did, particularly letters, were not signed by secretaries but rather bosses, and it was important that they and their work was reflective of their employers. The secretary, ideally, was to be involved, but not necessarily thought of as a 'producer' of content--only visible as an extension rather than authority: "Letters are an expression of an executive's personality. Don't you, as a secretary, quickly spot any flaws that come to your employer's desk? Don't you judge other secretaries and their employers by the kind of letters they mail from their offices?" (Becker 11)<br />
<br />
The ideal secretary was one who was trustworthy with private data, efficient, reliable, and attractive. She, as one employer describes in ''Secretaries Who Succeed'', served as "an extension of my own brain" (37). This sentiment has been echoed in the present with new technologies such as the iPhone, Blackberries, and laptops--all of which similarly serve as both status symbols, secret-keepers, transmitters of data, and as extensions of one's consciousness.<br />
<br />
== Letter dictation in pop culture ==<br />
<br />
In ''Monty Python's Flying Circus'' episode 33, letter dictation is parodied. Biggles dictates a letter to his secretary, who is confused as to exactly what words to transcribe in this exchange:<br />
<br />
'''Secretary''' Of Norway, is that?<br />
<br />
'''Biggles''' Just put down what I say.<br />
<br />
'''Secretary''' Do I put that down?<br />
<br />
'''Biggles''' Of course you don't put that down.<br />
<br />
'''Secretary''' Well what about that?<br />
<br />
'''Biggles''' Look. (she types) Don't put that down. Just put down - wait a mo - wait a mo. (puts on antlers) Now, when I've got these antlers on - when I've got these antlers on I am dictating and when I take them off (takes them off) I am not dictating.<br />
<br />
'''Secretary''' (types) I am not dictating.<br />
<br />
'''Biggles''' What? (she types; puts the antlers on) Read that back.<br />
<br />
'''Secretary''' Dear King Haakon, I am not dictating what?<br />
<br />
'''Biggles''' No, no, no, you loopy brothel inmate.<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<br />
Becker, Esther R. ''Secretaries Who Succeed''. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1947.<br />
<br />
Charters, W. W. and Isadore B. Whitley. ''Summary of Report on Analysis of Secretarial Duties and Traits.'' New York: The National Junior Personell Service, Inc., 1924.<br />
<br />
Doutt, Howard M. ''Secretarial Science''. Chicago: Richard D. Irwin, Inc., 1944.<br />
<br />
Kilduff, Edward Jones. ''The Private Secretary''. New York: D. Appleton-Century Company, 1924.<br />
<br />
Pitman, Isaac. ''New Standard Dictation Course.'' New York: Pittman & Sons, 1933.</div>Torpillehttp://www.cultureandcommunication.org/deadmedia/index.php?title=Secretarial_Letter_Dictation&diff=5966Secretarial Letter Dictation2008-11-12T17:41:22Z<p>Torpille: /* Letter dictation in pop culture */</p>
<hr />
<div><br />
== Basics of secretarial positions ==<br />
<br />
Secretarial work, in one form or another, has existed since writing has existed; scribes were the first incarnation, followed by clerks. With the commercialization of the typewriter in the late 1800s and their adoption in the 1900s, record-keeping and composition became increasingly integral to modern businesess and organizations. Originally, most outgoing business correspondence was handled by business owners and a hired clerk, and was usually handwritten (Yates 25). This was an incredibly time consuming, laborious process, and made record keeping confusing, as all incoming and outgoing communication was hand copied so it was impractical to keep more than one comprehensive book of correspondence (Yates 38). Speedwriting and stenography along with typing skills sped up the process of bureaucracy and were delegated to women, particularly young women, in the 1900s. <br />
<br />
The origins of the word secretary are generally agreed to be related to secret-keeping and trust. According to Edward Jones Kilduff, the word secretary "has its origin in common with the word secret, for both are derived from the Latin word secretus, which means private, secret, or pertaining to private or secret matters. Hence came the general definition of secretary as a person who is intrusted with private or secret matters; a confidential officer or attendant; a confidant" (Kilduff 3).<br />
<br />
== Secretary as mediums ==<br />
<br />
In a sense, secretarial work is a kind of 'medium' in and of itself. Secretaries receive communications from all types of sources; it is up to the secretary to determine which communications are the most pressing, and which do not deserve attention, and forward the important communications to the boss. Communications between businesses, especially letters, were not usually written by the businesspeople themselves--rather, the businessperson would speak (dictate) what was in the letter while the secretary/stenographer would write in shorthand what her supervisor dictated, and then type the letter on a typewriter with correct 'form,' meaning correcting any grammatical errors, formatting, spelling, detail work, etc. Essentially mail communications would go from a businessman to his secretary to another secretary to the businessman she represented. This was also true of phone calls and visitors: all communications had to pass through the secretary before reaching the intended recipient.<br />
<br />
Secretaries themselves still exist, but their duties have changed drastically due to email communications, word processing, and various other technologies. Letter dictation in particular is now incredibly rare, perhaps because of the common use of word processing technologies which drastically reduce the time needed to compose documents. Like the demise of the scribe due to increased literacy and printing, the stenographic duties of the secretary have diminished due to computing technologies. However, stenographers (using stenographic typewriters) are still in use in the legal system alongside voice-to-speech technology in case of computer failure.<br />
<br />
== Stenography in secretarial duties ==<br />
<br />
Stenography, or the practice of transcribing spoken word, was essential to the duties of a secretary, and a fast speed (usually of 100 words per minute), was desirable. "Except in the instances of college graduates, of persons who have received a specialized training in secretarial work, and of those who posess some exceptional qualification (a knowledge of financial matters or the ability to write well, for example), it is very difficult to obtain a position as a real private secretary without first having served an apprenticeship as a stenographer" (Kilduff 358).<br />
<br />
The importance of stenography, and particularly accurate stenography, for the secretary was expressed by George E. Roberts, vice president of National City Bank of New York City, "If my stenographer is not wholly accurate and dependable in transcribing her notes--her share of this mutual work--the effectiveness of my letter suffers. Through carelessness she has made me appear to say things I did not say, she has inclined my reader to the belief that I am ungrammatical, and by her inaccuracies in typing she has caused my letter to make an unfavorable impression. [...] Letter writing is an important function in business, and is becoming of greater importance because of the fact that transactions carried on by means of letters are rapidly increasing in number. The personal contact between a business house and its customers that existed in former years is being supplanted by a contact by letters. And all of this means that we must today make our letters more efficient. To do so we must enlist the coöperation of our stenographers to perform efficiently their share of the work of getting out good letters--letters that are accurate in transcription, correct in spelling, grammar, and punctuation, and pleasing in appearance" (Kilduff 13). This excerpt suggests that secretaries only copied exactly what was written, but frequently part of their duty was to correct wording, phrasing, and grammar, and know all of the correct formats, sort of like what Microsoft Word does with its Paperclip helper.[[Image:http://content.answers.com/main/content/wp/en-commons/thumb/a/ab/300px-Eclectic_shorthand_by_cross.png]]<br />
<br />
Many different types of speedwriting and shorthand exist, including the Pitman and Graham styles. College courses on shorthand were a popular choice for young women, and considered to be very practical. An example of this is in Sylvia Plath's novel ''The Bell Jar'', in which the Plath-based protagonist Esther's mother encourages Esther to take shorthand instead of trying to be a poet. Esther rejects this, seeing shorthand as a sure way into a subservient lifestyle.<br />
<br />
== The typewriter's role in the growth of the secretary ==<br />
<br />
In 1890, the U.S. Census reported 33,000 people employed as stenographers/typists, and by 1900, there were 134,000 people employed as stenographers, typists, and secretaries. In 1910, that number doubled; and in 1920 doubled again--786,000 secretaries (Yates 43). The typewriter allowed for a massive boom in the amount of women in the workforce: in 1871, only four percent of total commercial (business skills) school was female, and by 1900, that number leaped to 36 percent (Yates 44).<br />
<br />
Before the typewriter, letters were usually drafted and finalized by the composer of the letter--that is to say, the writer (the one who thought up the source of the material) and the writer (the one who performed the physical act of writing) were one in the same. With the advent of the typewriter, the two acts were separated entirely. According to Yates, the typewriter allowed "increasing subdivision of tasks and specialization of jobs, with the techniques of systematic management to coordinate the various specialized elements" in order to maximize efficiency. The typewriter further reduced the amount of time spent by highly paid executives on letter-writing, instead moving that task to lesser-paid secretarial workers (44). <br />
<br />
With the popularization of personal computers and word processing, this separation of composing and typing has again merged, as executives can easily write their own letters and internal communication is done increasingly through e-mail.<br />
<br />
== Secretary as extension of self ==<br />
<br />
What is particularly interesting about the secretary as a medium was the focus on her appearances, or 'poise.' While secretarial handbooks emphasize fast typing and shorthand skills along with organizational skills, each book has lengthly sections on the presentation of a secretary. As is expected, secretaries had dress requirements like we do today in offices, but even more requests on the attributes of secretaries were made. For example, a desired quality among secretaries was a pleasing voice, and to smile. Becker encourages secretaries to be 'phonogeninc' while on the telephone, at least until "television becomes a practical commercial reality" for telecommunications (73). Particular posture was requested--"Draping yourself about furniture, or leaning against files or doors as if they were lampposts is similarly condemned" (Becker 106)--and only pale nailpolish acceptable. One secretary recommends wearing blue frequently, as "[m]en almost universally like blue" (103). <br />
<br />
Manners were also essential, and women were thought to be much better at mannered speech and behavior than men, and more adept at being 'channels.' Edward Kilduff explains, "In so far as any general statement can be true, male secretaries are more likely not to possess suitable manners than are female secretaries; perhaps because it is man's nature to be more unrestrained and more independent than women, perhaps because men are not so sensitive to the effects of manners as women are and hence do not appreciate their value." Men, essentially, made bad mediums because they are too independent, more productive, and more creative than women.<br />
<br />
The work a secretary did, particularly letters, were not signed by secretaries but rather bosses, and it was important that they and their work was reflective of their employers. The secretary, ideally, was to be involved, but not necessarily thought of as a 'producer' of content--only visible as an extension rather than authority: "Letters are an expression of an executive's personality. Don't you, as a secretary, quickly spot any flaws that come to your employer's desk? Don't you judge other secretaries and their employers by the kind of letters they mail from their offices?" (Becker 11)<br />
<br />
The ideal secretary was one who was trustworthy with private data, efficient, reliable, and attractive. She, as one employer describes in ''Secretaries Who Succeed'', served as "an extension of my own brain" (37). This sentiment has been echoed in the present with new technologies such as the iPhone, Blackberries, and laptops--all of which similarly serve as both status symbols, secret-keepers, transmitters of data, and as extensions of one's consciousness.<br />
<br />
== Letter dictation in pop culture ==<br />
<br />
In ''Monty Python's Flying Circus'' episode 33, letter dictation is parodied. Biggles dictates a letter to his secretary, who is confused as to exactly what words to transcribe in this exchange:<br />
<br />
'''Secretary''' Of Norway, is that?<br />
<br />
'''Biggles''' Just put down what I say.<br />
<br />
'''Secretary''' Do I put that down?<br />
<br />
'''Biggles''' Of course you don't put that down.<br />
<br />
'''Secretary''' Well what about that?<br />
<br />
'''Biggles''' Look. (she types) Don't put that down. Just put down - wait a mo - wait a mo. (puts on antlers) Now, when I've got these antlers on - when I've got these antlers on I am dictating and when I take them off (takes them off) I am not dictating.<br />
<br />
'''Secretary''' (types) I am not dictating.<br />
<br />
'''Biggles''' What? (she types; puts the antlers on) Read that back.<br />
<br />
'''Secretary''' Dear King Haakon, I am not dictating what?<br />
<br />
'''Biggles''' No, no, no, you loopy brothel inmate.<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<br />
Becker, Esther R. ''Secretaries Who Succeed''. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1947.<br />
<br />
Charters, W. W. and Isadore B. Whitley. ''Summary of Report on Analysis of Secretarial Duties and Traits.'' New York: The National Junior Personell Service, Inc., 1924.<br />
<br />
Doutt, Howard M. ''Secretarial Science''. Chicago: Richard D. Irwin, Inc., 1944.<br />
<br />
Kilduff, Edward Jones. ''The Private Secretary''. New York: D. Appleton-Century Company, 1924.<br />
<br />
Pitman, Isaac. ''New Standard Dictation Course.'' New York: Pittman & Sons, 1933.</div>Torpillehttp://www.cultureandcommunication.org/deadmedia/index.php?title=Secretarial_Letter_Dictation&diff=5965Secretarial Letter Dictation2008-11-12T17:40:17Z<p>Torpille: /* Secretary as extension of self */</p>
<hr />
<div><br />
== Basics of secretarial positions ==<br />
<br />
Secretarial work, in one form or another, has existed since writing has existed; scribes were the first incarnation, followed by clerks. With the commercialization of the typewriter in the late 1800s and their adoption in the 1900s, record-keeping and composition became increasingly integral to modern businesess and organizations. Originally, most outgoing business correspondence was handled by business owners and a hired clerk, and was usually handwritten (Yates 25). This was an incredibly time consuming, laborious process, and made record keeping confusing, as all incoming and outgoing communication was hand copied so it was impractical to keep more than one comprehensive book of correspondence (Yates 38). Speedwriting and stenography along with typing skills sped up the process of bureaucracy and were delegated to women, particularly young women, in the 1900s. <br />
<br />
The origins of the word secretary are generally agreed to be related to secret-keeping and trust. According to Edward Jones Kilduff, the word secretary "has its origin in common with the word secret, for both are derived from the Latin word secretus, which means private, secret, or pertaining to private or secret matters. Hence came the general definition of secretary as a person who is intrusted with private or secret matters; a confidential officer or attendant; a confidant" (Kilduff 3).<br />
<br />
== Secretary as mediums ==<br />
<br />
In a sense, secretarial work is a kind of 'medium' in and of itself. Secretaries receive communications from all types of sources; it is up to the secretary to determine which communications are the most pressing, and which do not deserve attention, and forward the important communications to the boss. Communications between businesses, especially letters, were not usually written by the businesspeople themselves--rather, the businessperson would speak (dictate) what was in the letter while the secretary/stenographer would write in shorthand what her supervisor dictated, and then type the letter on a typewriter with correct 'form,' meaning correcting any grammatical errors, formatting, spelling, detail work, etc. Essentially mail communications would go from a businessman to his secretary to another secretary to the businessman she represented. This was also true of phone calls and visitors: all communications had to pass through the secretary before reaching the intended recipient.<br />
<br />
Secretaries themselves still exist, but their duties have changed drastically due to email communications, word processing, and various other technologies. Letter dictation in particular is now incredibly rare, perhaps because of the common use of word processing technologies which drastically reduce the time needed to compose documents. Like the demise of the scribe due to increased literacy and printing, the stenographic duties of the secretary have diminished due to computing technologies. However, stenographers (using stenographic typewriters) are still in use in the legal system alongside voice-to-speech technology in case of computer failure.<br />
<br />
== Stenography in secretarial duties ==<br />
<br />
Stenography, or the practice of transcribing spoken word, was essential to the duties of a secretary, and a fast speed (usually of 100 words per minute), was desirable. "Except in the instances of college graduates, of persons who have received a specialized training in secretarial work, and of those who posess some exceptional qualification (a knowledge of financial matters or the ability to write well, for example), it is very difficult to obtain a position as a real private secretary without first having served an apprenticeship as a stenographer" (Kilduff 358).<br />
<br />
The importance of stenography, and particularly accurate stenography, for the secretary was expressed by George E. Roberts, vice president of National City Bank of New York City, "If my stenographer is not wholly accurate and dependable in transcribing her notes--her share of this mutual work--the effectiveness of my letter suffers. Through carelessness she has made me appear to say things I did not say, she has inclined my reader to the belief that I am ungrammatical, and by her inaccuracies in typing she has caused my letter to make an unfavorable impression. [...] Letter writing is an important function in business, and is becoming of greater importance because of the fact that transactions carried on by means of letters are rapidly increasing in number. The personal contact between a business house and its customers that existed in former years is being supplanted by a contact by letters. And all of this means that we must today make our letters more efficient. To do so we must enlist the coöperation of our stenographers to perform efficiently their share of the work of getting out good letters--letters that are accurate in transcription, correct in spelling, grammar, and punctuation, and pleasing in appearance" (Kilduff 13). This excerpt suggests that secretaries only copied exactly what was written, but frequently part of their duty was to correct wording, phrasing, and grammar, and know all of the correct formats, sort of like what Microsoft Word does with its Paperclip helper.[[Image:http://content.answers.com/main/content/wp/en-commons/thumb/a/ab/300px-Eclectic_shorthand_by_cross.png]]<br />
<br />
Many different types of speedwriting and shorthand exist, including the Pitman and Graham styles. College courses on shorthand were a popular choice for young women, and considered to be very practical. An example of this is in Sylvia Plath's novel ''The Bell Jar'', in which the Plath-based protagonist Esther's mother encourages Esther to take shorthand instead of trying to be a poet. Esther rejects this, seeing shorthand as a sure way into a subservient lifestyle.<br />
<br />
== The typewriter's role in the growth of the secretary ==<br />
<br />
In 1890, the U.S. Census reported 33,000 people employed as stenographers/typists, and by 1900, there were 134,000 people employed as stenographers, typists, and secretaries. In 1910, that number doubled; and in 1920 doubled again--786,000 secretaries (Yates 43). The typewriter allowed for a massive boom in the amount of women in the workforce: in 1871, only four percent of total commercial (business skills) school was female, and by 1900, that number leaped to 36 percent (Yates 44).<br />
<br />
Before the typewriter, letters were usually drafted and finalized by the composer of the letter--that is to say, the writer (the one who thought up the source of the material) and the writer (the one who performed the physical act of writing) were one in the same. With the advent of the typewriter, the two acts were separated entirely. According to Yates, the typewriter allowed "increasing subdivision of tasks and specialization of jobs, with the techniques of systematic management to coordinate the various specialized elements" in order to maximize efficiency. The typewriter further reduced the amount of time spent by highly paid executives on letter-writing, instead moving that task to lesser-paid secretarial workers (44). <br />
<br />
With the popularization of personal computers and word processing, this separation of composing and typing has again merged, as executives can easily write their own letters and internal communication is done increasingly through e-mail.<br />
<br />
== Secretary as extension of self ==<br />
<br />
What is particularly interesting about the secretary as a medium was the focus on her appearances, or 'poise.' While secretarial handbooks emphasize fast typing and shorthand skills along with organizational skills, each book has lengthly sections on the presentation of a secretary. As is expected, secretaries had dress requirements like we do today in offices, but even more requests on the attributes of secretaries were made. For example, a desired quality among secretaries was a pleasing voice, and to smile. Becker encourages secretaries to be 'phonogeninc' while on the telephone, at least until "television becomes a practical commercial reality" for telecommunications (73). Particular posture was requested--"Draping yourself about furniture, or leaning against files or doors as if they were lampposts is similarly condemned" (Becker 106)--and only pale nailpolish acceptable. One secretary recommends wearing blue frequently, as "[m]en almost universally like blue" (103). <br />
<br />
Manners were also essential, and women were thought to be much better at mannered speech and behavior than men, and more adept at being 'channels.' Edward Kilduff explains, "In so far as any general statement can be true, male secretaries are more likely not to possess suitable manners than are female secretaries; perhaps because it is man's nature to be more unrestrained and more independent than women, perhaps because men are not so sensitive to the effects of manners as women are and hence do not appreciate their value." Men, essentially, made bad mediums because they are too independent, more productive, and more creative than women.<br />
<br />
The work a secretary did, particularly letters, were not signed by secretaries but rather bosses, and it was important that they and their work was reflective of their employers. The secretary, ideally, was to be involved, but not necessarily thought of as a 'producer' of content--only visible as an extension rather than authority: "Letters are an expression of an executive's personality. Don't you, as a secretary, quickly spot any flaws that come to your employer's desk? Don't you judge other secretaries and their employers by the kind of letters they mail from their offices?" (Becker 11)<br />
<br />
The ideal secretary was one who was trustworthy with private data, efficient, reliable, and attractive. She, as one employer describes in ''Secretaries Who Succeed'', served as "an extension of my own brain" (37). This sentiment has been echoed in the present with new technologies such as the iPhone, Blackberries, and laptops--all of which similarly serve as both status symbols, secret-keepers, transmitters of data, and as extensions of one's consciousness.<br />
<br />
== Letter dictation in pop culture ==<br />
<br />
In ''Monty Python's Flying Circus'' episode 33, letter dictation is parodied. Biggles dictates a letter to his secretary, who is confused as to exactly what words to transcribe in this exchange:<br />
<br />
Secretary Of Norway, is that?<br />
Biggles Just put down what I say.<br />
Secretary Do I put that down?<br />
Biggles Of course you don't put that down.<br />
Secretary Well what about that?<br />
Biggles Look. (she types) Don't put that down. Just put down - wait a mo - wait a mo. (puts on antlers) Now, when I've got these antlers on - when I've got these antlers on I am dictating and when I take them off (takes them off) I am not dictating.<br />
Secretary (types) I am not dictating.<br />
Biggles What? (she types; puts the antlers on) Read that back.<br />
Secretary Dear King Haakon, I am not dictating what?<br />
Biggles No, no, no, you loopy brothel inmate.<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<br />
Becker, Esther R. ''Secretaries Who Succeed''. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1947.<br />
<br />
Charters, W. W. and Isadore B. Whitley. ''Summary of Report on Analysis of Secretarial Duties and Traits.'' New York: The National Junior Personell Service, Inc., 1924.<br />
<br />
Doutt, Howard M. ''Secretarial Science''. Chicago: Richard D. Irwin, Inc., 1944.<br />
<br />
Kilduff, Edward Jones. ''The Private Secretary''. New York: D. Appleton-Century Company, 1924.<br />
<br />
Pitman, Isaac. ''New Standard Dictation Course.'' New York: Pittman & Sons, 1933.</div>Torpillehttp://www.cultureandcommunication.org/deadmedia/index.php?title=Secretarial_Letter_Dictation&diff=5964Secretarial Letter Dictation2008-11-12T17:32:39Z<p>Torpille: /* The typewriter's role in the growth of the secretary */</p>
<hr />
<div><br />
== Basics of secretarial positions ==<br />
<br />
Secretarial work, in one form or another, has existed since writing has existed; scribes were the first incarnation, followed by clerks. With the commercialization of the typewriter in the late 1800s and their adoption in the 1900s, record-keeping and composition became increasingly integral to modern businesess and organizations. Originally, most outgoing business correspondence was handled by business owners and a hired clerk, and was usually handwritten (Yates 25). This was an incredibly time consuming, laborious process, and made record keeping confusing, as all incoming and outgoing communication was hand copied so it was impractical to keep more than one comprehensive book of correspondence (Yates 38). Speedwriting and stenography along with typing skills sped up the process of bureaucracy and were delegated to women, particularly young women, in the 1900s. <br />
<br />
The origins of the word secretary are generally agreed to be related to secret-keeping and trust. According to Edward Jones Kilduff, the word secretary "has its origin in common with the word secret, for both are derived from the Latin word secretus, which means private, secret, or pertaining to private or secret matters. Hence came the general definition of secretary as a person who is intrusted with private or secret matters; a confidential officer or attendant; a confidant" (Kilduff 3).<br />
<br />
== Secretary as mediums ==<br />
<br />
In a sense, secretarial work is a kind of 'medium' in and of itself. Secretaries receive communications from all types of sources; it is up to the secretary to determine which communications are the most pressing, and which do not deserve attention, and forward the important communications to the boss. Communications between businesses, especially letters, were not usually written by the businesspeople themselves--rather, the businessperson would speak (dictate) what was in the letter while the secretary/stenographer would write in shorthand what her supervisor dictated, and then type the letter on a typewriter with correct 'form,' meaning correcting any grammatical errors, formatting, spelling, detail work, etc. Essentially mail communications would go from a businessman to his secretary to another secretary to the businessman she represented. This was also true of phone calls and visitors: all communications had to pass through the secretary before reaching the intended recipient.<br />
<br />
Secretaries themselves still exist, but their duties have changed drastically due to email communications, word processing, and various other technologies. Letter dictation in particular is now incredibly rare, perhaps because of the common use of word processing technologies which drastically reduce the time needed to compose documents. Like the demise of the scribe due to increased literacy and printing, the stenographic duties of the secretary have diminished due to computing technologies. However, stenographers (using stenographic typewriters) are still in use in the legal system alongside voice-to-speech technology in case of computer failure.<br />
<br />
== Stenography in secretarial duties ==<br />
<br />
Stenography, or the practice of transcribing spoken word, was essential to the duties of a secretary, and a fast speed (usually of 100 words per minute), was desirable. "Except in the instances of college graduates, of persons who have received a specialized training in secretarial work, and of those who posess some exceptional qualification (a knowledge of financial matters or the ability to write well, for example), it is very difficult to obtain a position as a real private secretary without first having served an apprenticeship as a stenographer" (Kilduff 358).<br />
<br />
The importance of stenography, and particularly accurate stenography, for the secretary was expressed by George E. Roberts, vice president of National City Bank of New York City, "If my stenographer is not wholly accurate and dependable in transcribing her notes--her share of this mutual work--the effectiveness of my letter suffers. Through carelessness she has made me appear to say things I did not say, she has inclined my reader to the belief that I am ungrammatical, and by her inaccuracies in typing she has caused my letter to make an unfavorable impression. [...] Letter writing is an important function in business, and is becoming of greater importance because of the fact that transactions carried on by means of letters are rapidly increasing in number. The personal contact between a business house and its customers that existed in former years is being supplanted by a contact by letters. And all of this means that we must today make our letters more efficient. To do so we must enlist the coöperation of our stenographers to perform efficiently their share of the work of getting out good letters--letters that are accurate in transcription, correct in spelling, grammar, and punctuation, and pleasing in appearance" (Kilduff 13). This excerpt suggests that secretaries only copied exactly what was written, but frequently part of their duty was to correct wording, phrasing, and grammar, and know all of the correct formats, sort of like what Microsoft Word does with its Paperclip helper.[[Image:http://content.answers.com/main/content/wp/en-commons/thumb/a/ab/300px-Eclectic_shorthand_by_cross.png]]<br />
<br />
Many different types of speedwriting and shorthand exist, including the Pitman and Graham styles. College courses on shorthand were a popular choice for young women, and considered to be very practical. An example of this is in Sylvia Plath's novel ''The Bell Jar'', in which the Plath-based protagonist Esther's mother encourages Esther to take shorthand instead of trying to be a poet. Esther rejects this, seeing shorthand as a sure way into a subservient lifestyle.<br />
<br />
== The typewriter's role in the growth of the secretary ==<br />
<br />
In 1890, the U.S. Census reported 33,000 people employed as stenographers/typists, and by 1900, there were 134,000 people employed as stenographers, typists, and secretaries. In 1910, that number doubled; and in 1920 doubled again--786,000 secretaries (Yates 43). The typewriter allowed for a massive boom in the amount of women in the workforce: in 1871, only four percent of total commercial (business skills) school was female, and by 1900, that number leaped to 36 percent (Yates 44).<br />
<br />
Before the typewriter, letters were usually drafted and finalized by the composer of the letter--that is to say, the writer (the one who thought up the source of the material) and the writer (the one who performed the physical act of writing) were one in the same. With the advent of the typewriter, the two acts were separated entirely. According to Yates, the typewriter allowed "increasing subdivision of tasks and specialization of jobs, with the techniques of systematic management to coordinate the various specialized elements" in order to maximize efficiency. The typewriter further reduced the amount of time spent by highly paid executives on letter-writing, instead moving that task to lesser-paid secretarial workers (44). <br />
<br />
With the popularization of personal computers and word processing, this separation of composing and typing has again merged, as executives can easily write their own letters and internal communication is done increasingly through e-mail.<br />
<br />
== Secretary as extension of self ==<br />
<br />
What is particularly interesting about the secretary as a medium was the focus on her appearances, or 'poise.' While secretarial handbooks emphasize fast typing and shorthand skills along with organizational skills, each book has lengthly sections on the presentation of a secretary. As is expected, secretaries had dress requirements like we do today in offices, but even more requests on the attributes of secretaries were made. For example, a desired quality among secretaries was a pleasing voice, and to smile. Becker encourages secretaries to be 'phonogeninc' while on the telephone, at least until "television becomes a practical commercial reality" for telecommunications (73). Particular posture was requested--"Draping yourself about furniture, or leaning against files or doors as if they were lampposts is similarly condemned" (Becker 106)--and only pale nailpolish acceptable. One secretary recommends wearing blue frequently, as "[m]en almost universally like blue" (103). <br />
<br />
Manners were also essential, and women were thought to be much better at mannered speech and behavior than men, and more adept at being 'channels.' Edward Kilduff explains, "In so far as any general statement can be true, male secretaries are more likely not to possess suitable manners than are female secretaries; perhaps because it is man's nature to be more unrestrained and more independent than women, perhaps because men are not so sensitive to the effects of manners as women are and hence do not appreciate their value." Men, essentially, made bad mediums because they are too independent, more productive, <br />
<br />
The work a secretary did, particularly letters, were not signed by secretaries but rather bosses, and it was important that they and their work was reflective of their employers. The secretary, ideally, was to be involved, but not necessarily thought of as a 'producer' of content--only visible as an extension rather than authority:<br />
"Letters are an expression of an executive's personality. Don't you, as a secretary, quickly spot any flaws that come to your employer's desk? Don't you judge other secretaries and their employers by the kind of letters they mail from their offices?" (Becker 11)<br />
<br />
The ideal secretary was one who was trustworthy with private data, efficient, reliable, and attractive. She, as one employer describes in ''Secretaries Who Succeed'', served as "an extension of my own brain" (37). This sentiment has been echoed in the present with new technologies such as the iPhone, Blackberries, and laptops--all of which similarly serve as both status symbols, secret-keepers, transmitters of data, and as extensions of one's consciousness.<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<br />
Becker, Esther R. ''Secretaries Who Succeed''. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1947.<br />
<br />
Charters, W. W. and Isadore B. Whitley. ''Summary of Report on Analysis of Secretarial Duties and Traits.'' New York: The National Junior Personell Service, Inc., 1924.<br />
<br />
Doutt, Howard M. ''Secretarial Science''. Chicago: Richard D. Irwin, Inc., 1944.<br />
<br />
Kilduff, Edward Jones. ''The Private Secretary''. New York: D. Appleton-Century Company, 1924.<br />
<br />
Pitman, Isaac. ''New Standard Dictation Course.'' New York: Pittman & Sons, 1933.</div>Torpillehttp://www.cultureandcommunication.org/deadmedia/index.php?title=Secretarial_Letter_Dictation&diff=5963Secretarial Letter Dictation2008-11-12T17:32:21Z<p>Torpille: /* Stenography in secretarial duties */</p>
<hr />
<div><br />
== Basics of secretarial positions ==<br />
<br />
Secretarial work, in one form or another, has existed since writing has existed; scribes were the first incarnation, followed by clerks. With the commercialization of the typewriter in the late 1800s and their adoption in the 1900s, record-keeping and composition became increasingly integral to modern businesess and organizations. Originally, most outgoing business correspondence was handled by business owners and a hired clerk, and was usually handwritten (Yates 25). This was an incredibly time consuming, laborious process, and made record keeping confusing, as all incoming and outgoing communication was hand copied so it was impractical to keep more than one comprehensive book of correspondence (Yates 38). Speedwriting and stenography along with typing skills sped up the process of bureaucracy and were delegated to women, particularly young women, in the 1900s. <br />
<br />
The origins of the word secretary are generally agreed to be related to secret-keeping and trust. According to Edward Jones Kilduff, the word secretary "has its origin in common with the word secret, for both are derived from the Latin word secretus, which means private, secret, or pertaining to private or secret matters. Hence came the general definition of secretary as a person who is intrusted with private or secret matters; a confidential officer or attendant; a confidant" (Kilduff 3).<br />
<br />
== Secretary as mediums ==<br />
<br />
In a sense, secretarial work is a kind of 'medium' in and of itself. Secretaries receive communications from all types of sources; it is up to the secretary to determine which communications are the most pressing, and which do not deserve attention, and forward the important communications to the boss. Communications between businesses, especially letters, were not usually written by the businesspeople themselves--rather, the businessperson would speak (dictate) what was in the letter while the secretary/stenographer would write in shorthand what her supervisor dictated, and then type the letter on a typewriter with correct 'form,' meaning correcting any grammatical errors, formatting, spelling, detail work, etc. Essentially mail communications would go from a businessman to his secretary to another secretary to the businessman she represented. This was also true of phone calls and visitors: all communications had to pass through the secretary before reaching the intended recipient.<br />
<br />
Secretaries themselves still exist, but their duties have changed drastically due to email communications, word processing, and various other technologies. Letter dictation in particular is now incredibly rare, perhaps because of the common use of word processing technologies which drastically reduce the time needed to compose documents. Like the demise of the scribe due to increased literacy and printing, the stenographic duties of the secretary have diminished due to computing technologies. However, stenographers (using stenographic typewriters) are still in use in the legal system alongside voice-to-speech technology in case of computer failure.<br />
<br />
== Stenography in secretarial duties ==<br />
<br />
Stenography, or the practice of transcribing spoken word, was essential to the duties of a secretary, and a fast speed (usually of 100 words per minute), was desirable. "Except in the instances of college graduates, of persons who have received a specialized training in secretarial work, and of those who posess some exceptional qualification (a knowledge of financial matters or the ability to write well, for example), it is very difficult to obtain a position as a real private secretary without first having served an apprenticeship as a stenographer" (Kilduff 358).<br />
<br />
The importance of stenography, and particularly accurate stenography, for the secretary was expressed by George E. Roberts, vice president of National City Bank of New York City, "If my stenographer is not wholly accurate and dependable in transcribing her notes--her share of this mutual work--the effectiveness of my letter suffers. Through carelessness she has made me appear to say things I did not say, she has inclined my reader to the belief that I am ungrammatical, and by her inaccuracies in typing she has caused my letter to make an unfavorable impression. [...] Letter writing is an important function in business, and is becoming of greater importance because of the fact that transactions carried on by means of letters are rapidly increasing in number. The personal contact between a business house and its customers that existed in former years is being supplanted by a contact by letters. And all of this means that we must today make our letters more efficient. To do so we must enlist the coöperation of our stenographers to perform efficiently their share of the work of getting out good letters--letters that are accurate in transcription, correct in spelling, grammar, and punctuation, and pleasing in appearance" (Kilduff 13). This excerpt suggests that secretaries only copied exactly what was written, but frequently part of their duty was to correct wording, phrasing, and grammar, and know all of the correct formats, sort of like what Microsoft Word does with its Paperclip helper.[[Image:http://content.answers.com/main/content/wp/en-commons/thumb/a/ab/300px-Eclectic_shorthand_by_cross.png]]<br />
<br />
Many different types of speedwriting and shorthand exist, including the Pitman and Graham styles. College courses on shorthand were a popular choice for young women, and considered to be very practical. An example of this is in Sylvia Plath's novel ''The Bell Jar'', in which the Plath-based protagonist Esther's mother encourages Esther to take shorthand instead of trying to be a poet. Esther rejects this, seeing shorthand as a sure way into a subservient lifestyle.<br />
<br />
== The typewriter's role in the growth of the secretary ==<br />
<br />
<br />
In 1890, the U.S. Census reported 33,000 people employed as stenographers/typists, and by 1900, there were 134,000 people employed as stenographers, typists, and secretaries. In 1910, that number doubled; and in 1920 doubled again--786,000 secretaries (Yates 43). The typewriter allowed for a massive boom in the amount of women in the workforce: in 1871, only four percent of total commercial (business skills) school was female, and by 1900, that number leaped to 36 percent (Yates 44).<br />
<br />
Before the typewriter, letters were usually drafted and finalized by the composer of the letter--that is to say, the writer (the one who thought up the source of the material) and the writer (the one who performed the physical act of writing) were one in the same. With the advent of the typewriter, the two acts were separated entirely. According to Yates, the typewriter allowed "increasing subdivision of tasks and specialization of jobs, with the techniques of systematic management to coordinate the various specialized elements" in order to maximize efficiency. The typewriter further reduced the amount of time spent by highly paid executives on letter-writing, instead moving that task to lesser-paid secretarial workers (44). <br />
<br />
With the popularization of personal computers and word processing, this separation of composing and typing has again merged, as executives can easily write their own letters and internal communication is done increasingly through e-mail.<br />
<br />
== Secretary as extension of self ==<br />
<br />
What is particularly interesting about the secretary as a medium was the focus on her appearances, or 'poise.' While secretarial handbooks emphasize fast typing and shorthand skills along with organizational skills, each book has lengthly sections on the presentation of a secretary. As is expected, secretaries had dress requirements like we do today in offices, but even more requests on the attributes of secretaries were made. For example, a desired quality among secretaries was a pleasing voice, and to smile. Becker encourages secretaries to be 'phonogeninc' while on the telephone, at least until "television becomes a practical commercial reality" for telecommunications (73). Particular posture was requested--"Draping yourself about furniture, or leaning against files or doors as if they were lampposts is similarly condemned" (Becker 106)--and only pale nailpolish acceptable. One secretary recommends wearing blue frequently, as "[m]en almost universally like blue" (103). <br />
<br />
Manners were also essential, and women were thought to be much better at mannered speech and behavior than men, and more adept at being 'channels.' Edward Kilduff explains, "In so far as any general statement can be true, male secretaries are more likely not to possess suitable manners than are female secretaries; perhaps because it is man's nature to be more unrestrained and more independent than women, perhaps because men are not so sensitive to the effects of manners as women are and hence do not appreciate their value." Men, essentially, made bad mediums because they are too independent, more productive, <br />
<br />
The work a secretary did, particularly letters, were not signed by secretaries but rather bosses, and it was important that they and their work was reflective of their employers. The secretary, ideally, was to be involved, but not necessarily thought of as a 'producer' of content--only visible as an extension rather than authority:<br />
"Letters are an expression of an executive's personality. Don't you, as a secretary, quickly spot any flaws that come to your employer's desk? Don't you judge other secretaries and their employers by the kind of letters they mail from their offices?" (Becker 11)<br />
<br />
The ideal secretary was one who was trustworthy with private data, efficient, reliable, and attractive. She, as one employer describes in ''Secretaries Who Succeed'', served as "an extension of my own brain" (37). This sentiment has been echoed in the present with new technologies such as the iPhone, Blackberries, and laptops--all of which similarly serve as both status symbols, secret-keepers, transmitters of data, and as extensions of one's consciousness.<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<br />
Becker, Esther R. ''Secretaries Who Succeed''. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1947.<br />
<br />
Charters, W. W. and Isadore B. Whitley. ''Summary of Report on Analysis of Secretarial Duties and Traits.'' New York: The National Junior Personell Service, Inc., 1924.<br />
<br />
Doutt, Howard M. ''Secretarial Science''. Chicago: Richard D. Irwin, Inc., 1944.<br />
<br />
Kilduff, Edward Jones. ''The Private Secretary''. New York: D. Appleton-Century Company, 1924.<br />
<br />
Pitman, Isaac. ''New Standard Dictation Course.'' New York: Pittman & Sons, 1933.</div>Torpillehttp://www.cultureandcommunication.org/deadmedia/index.php?title=Secretarial_Letter_Dictation&diff=5962Secretarial Letter Dictation2008-11-12T17:02:33Z<p>Torpille: /* Basics of secretarial positions */</p>
<hr />
<div><br />
== Basics of secretarial positions ==<br />
<br />
Secretarial work, in one form or another, has existed since writing has existed; scribes were the first incarnation, followed by clerks. With the commercialization of the typewriter in the late 1800s and their adoption in the 1900s, record-keeping and composition became increasingly integral to modern businesess and organizations. Originally, most outgoing business correspondence was handled by business owners and a hired clerk, and was usually handwritten (Yates 25). This was an incredibly time consuming, laborious process, and made record keeping confusing, as all incoming and outgoing communication was hand copied so it was impractical to keep more than one comprehensive book of correspondence (Yates 38). Speedwriting and stenography along with typing skills sped up the process of bureaucracy and were delegated to women, particularly young women, in the 1900s. <br />
<br />
The origins of the word secretary are generally agreed to be related to secret-keeping and trust. According to Edward Jones Kilduff, the word secretary "has its origin in common with the word secret, for both are derived from the Latin word secretus, which means private, secret, or pertaining to private or secret matters. Hence came the general definition of secretary as a person who is intrusted with private or secret matters; a confidential officer or attendant; a confidant" (Kilduff 3).<br />
<br />
== Secretary as mediums ==<br />
<br />
In a sense, secretarial work is a kind of 'medium' in and of itself. Secretaries receive communications from all types of sources; it is up to the secretary to determine which communications are the most pressing, and which do not deserve attention, and forward the important communications to the boss. Communications between businesses, especially letters, were not usually written by the businesspeople themselves--rather, the businessperson would speak (dictate) what was in the letter while the secretary/stenographer would write in shorthand what her supervisor dictated, and then type the letter on a typewriter with correct 'form,' meaning correcting any grammatical errors, formatting, spelling, detail work, etc. Essentially mail communications would go from a businessman to his secretary to another secretary to the businessman she represented. This was also true of phone calls and visitors: all communications had to pass through the secretary before reaching the intended recipient.<br />
<br />
Secretaries themselves still exist, but their duties have changed drastically due to email communications, word processing, and various other technologies. Letter dictation in particular is now incredibly rare, perhaps because of the common use of word processing technologies which drastically reduce the time needed to compose documents. Like the demise of the scribe due to increased literacy and printing, the stenographic duties of the secretary have diminished due to computing technologies. However, stenographers (using stenographic typewriters) are still in use in the legal system alongside voice-to-speech technology in case of computer failure.<br />
<br />
== Stenography in secretarial duties ==<br />
<br />
Stenography, or the practice of transcribing spoken word, was essential to the duties of a secretary, and a fast speed (usually of 100 words per minute), was desirable. "Except in the instances of college graduates, of persons who have received a specialized training in secretarial work, and of those who posesss some exceptional qualification (a knowledge of financial matters or the ability to write well, for example), it is very difficult to obtain a position as a real private secretary without first having served an apprenticeship as a stenographer" (Kilduff 358).<br />
<br />
The importance of stenography, and particularly accurate stenography, for the secretary was expressed by George E. Roberts, vice president of National City Bank of New York City, "If my stenographer is not wholly accurate and dependable in transcribing her notes--her share of this mutual work--the effectiveness of my letter suffers. Through carelessness she has made me appear to say things I did not say, she has inclined my reader to the belief that I am ungrammatical, and by her inaccuracies in typing she has caused my letter to make an unfavorable impression. [...] Letter writing is an important function in business, and is becoming of greater importance because of the fact that transactions carried on by means of letters are rapidly increasing in number. The personal contact between a business house and its customers that existed in former years is being supplanted by a contact by letters. And all of this means that we must today make our letters more efficient. To do so we must enlist the coöperation of our stenographers to perform efficiently their share of the work of getting out good letters--letters that are accurate in transcription, correct in spelling, grammar, and punctuation, and pleasing in appearance" (Kilduff 13). This excerpt suggests that secretaries only copied exactly what was written, but frequently part of their duty was to correct wording, phrasing, and grammar, and know all of the correct formats, sort of like what Microsoft Word does with its Paperclip helper.[[Image:http://content.answers.com/main/content/wp/en-commons/thumb/a/ab/300px-Eclectic_shorthand_by_cross.png]]<br />
<br />
Many different types of speedwriting and shorthand exist, including the Pitman and Graham styles. College courses on shorthand were a popular choice for young women, and considered to be very practical. An example of this is in Sylvia Plath's novel ''The Bell Jar'', in which the Plath-based protagonist Esther's mother encourages Esther to take shorthand instead of trying to be a poet. Esther rejects this, seeing shorthand as a sure way into a subservient lifestyle.<br />
<br />
== Secretary as extension of self ==<br />
<br />
What is particularly interesting about the secretary as a medium was the focus on her appearances, or 'poise.' While secretarial handbooks emphasize fast typing and shorthand skills along with organizational skills, each book has lengthly sections on the presentation of a secretary. As is expected, secretaries had dress requirements like we do today in offices, but even more requests on the attributes of secretaries were made. For example, a desired quality among secretaries was a pleasing voice, and to smile. Becker encourages secretaries to be 'phonogeninc' while on the telephone, at least until "television becomes a practical commercial reality" for telecommunications (73). Particular posture was requested--"Draping yourself about furniture, or leaning against files or doors as if they were lampposts is similarly condemned" (Becker 106)--and only pale nailpolish acceptable. One secretary recommends wearing blue frequently, as "[m]en almost universally like blue" (103). <br />
<br />
Manners were also essential, and women were thought to be much better at mannered speech and behavior than men, and more adept at being 'channels.' Edward Kilduff explains, "In so far as any general statement can be true, male secretaries are more likely not to possess suitable manners than are female secretaries; perhaps because it is man's nature to be more unrestrained and more independent than women, perhaps because men are not so sensitive to the effects of manners as women are and hence do not appreciate their value." Men, essentially, made bad mediums because they are too independent, more productive, <br />
<br />
The work a secretary did, particularly letters, were not signed by secretaries but rather bosses, and it was important that they and their work was reflective of their employers. The secretary, ideally, was to be involved, but not necessarily thought of as a 'producer' of content--only visible as an extension rather than authority:<br />
"Letters are an expression of an executive's personality. Don't you, as a secretary, quickly spot any flaws that come to your employer's desk? Don't you judge other secretaries and their employers by the kind of letters they mail from their offices?" (Becker 11)<br />
<br />
The ideal secretary was one who was trustworthy with private data, efficient, reliable, and attractive. She, as one employer describes in ''Secretaries Who Succeed'', served as "an extension of my own brain" (37). This sentiment has been echoed in the present with new technologies such as the iPhone, Blackberries, and laptops--all of which similarly serve as both status symbols, secret-keepers, transmitters of data, and as extensions of one's consciousness.<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<br />
Becker, Esther R. ''Secretaries Who Succeed''. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1947.<br />
<br />
Charters, W. W. and Isadore B. Whitley. ''Summary of Report on Analysis of Secretarial Duties and Traits.'' New York: The National Junior Personell Service, Inc., 1924.<br />
<br />
Doutt, Howard M. ''Secretarial Science''. Chicago: Richard D. Irwin, Inc., 1944.<br />
<br />
Kilduff, Edward Jones. ''The Private Secretary''. New York: D. Appleton-Century Company, 1924.<br />
<br />
Pitman, Isaac. ''New Standard Dictation Course.'' New York: Pittman & Sons, 1933.</div>Torpillehttp://www.cultureandcommunication.org/deadmedia/index.php?title=Secretarial_Letter_Dictation&diff=5911Secretarial Letter Dictation2008-11-05T20:35:39Z<p>Torpille: /* References */</p>
<hr />
<div><br />
== Basics of secretarial positions ==<br />
<br />
Secretarial work, in one form or another, has existed since writing has existed; scribes were the first incarnation, followed by clerks. With the commercialization of the typewriter in the late 1800s and their adoption in the 1900s, record-keeping and composition became increasingly integral to modern businesess and organizations. Speedwriting and stenography along with typing skills sped up the process of bureaucracy and were delegated to women, particularly young women, in the 1900s. <br />
<br />
The origins of the word secretary are generally agreed to be related to secret-keeping and trust. According to Edward Jones Kilduff, the word secretary "has its origin in common with the word secret, for both are derived from the Latin word secretus, which means private, secret, or pertaining to private or secret matters. Hence came the general definition of secretary as a person who is intrusted with private or secret matters; a confidential officer or attendant; a confidant" (Kilduff 3).<br />
<br />
== Secretary as mediums ==<br />
<br />
In a sense, secretarial work is a kind of 'medium' in and of itself. Secretaries receive communications from all types of sources; it is up to the secretary to determine which communications are the most pressing, and which do not deserve attention, and forward the important communications to the boss. Communications between businesses, especially letters, were not usually written by the businesspeople themselves--rather, the businessperson would speak (dictate) what was in the letter while the secretary/stenographer would write in shorthand what her supervisor dictated, and then type the letter on a typewriter with correct 'form,' meaning correcting any grammatical errors, formatting, spelling, detail work, etc. Essentially mail communications would go from a businessman to his secretary to another secretary to the businessman she represented. This was also true of phone calls and visitors: all communications had to pass through the secretary before reaching the intended recipient.<br />
<br />
Secretaries themselves still exist, but their duties have changed drastically due to email communications, word processing, and various other technologies. Letter dictation in particular is now incredibly rare, perhaps because of the common use of word processing technologies which drastically reduce the time needed to compose documents. Like the demise of the scribe due to increased literacy and printing, the stenographic duties of the secretary have diminished due to computing technologies. However, stenographers (using stenographic typewriters) are still in use in the legal system alongside voice-to-speech technology in case of computer failure.<br />
<br />
== Stenography in secretarial duties ==<br />
<br />
Stenography, or the practice of transcribing spoken word, was essential to the duties of a secretary, and a fast speed (usually of 100 words per minute), was desirable. "Except in the instances of college graduates, of persons who have received a specialized training in secretarial work, and of those who posesss some exceptional qualification (a knowledge of financial matters or the ability to write well, for example), it is very difficult to obtain a position as a real private secretary without first having served an apprenticeship as a stenographer" (Kilduff 358).<br />
<br />
The importance of stenography, and particularly accurate stenography, for the secretary was expressed by George E. Roberts, vice president of National City Bank of New York City, "If my stenographer is not wholly accurate and dependable in transcribing her notes--her share of this mutual work--the effectiveness of my letter suffers. Through carelessness she has made me appear to say things I did not say, she has inclined my reader to the belief that I am ungrammatical, and by her inaccuracies in typing she has caused my letter to make an unfavorable impression. [...] Letter writing is an important function in business, and is becoming of greater importance because of the fact that transactions carried on by means of letters are rapidly increasing in number. The personal contact between a business house and its customers that existed in former years is being supplanted by a contact by letters. And all of this means that we must today make our letters more efficient. To do so we must enlist the coöperation of our stenographers to perform efficiently their share of the work of getting out good letters--letters that are accurate in transcription, correct in spelling, grammar, and punctuation, and pleasing in appearance" (Kilduff 13). This excerpt suggests that secretaries only copied exactly what was written, but frequently part of their duty was to correct wording, phrasing, and grammar, and know all of the correct formats, sort of like what Microsoft Word does with its Paperclip helper.[[Image:http://content.answers.com/main/content/wp/en-commons/thumb/a/ab/300px-Eclectic_shorthand_by_cross.png]]<br />
<br />
Many different types of speedwriting and shorthand exist, including the Pitman and Graham styles. College courses on shorthand were a popular choice for young women, and considered to be very practical. An example of this is in Sylvia Plath's novel ''The Bell Jar'', in which the Plath-based protagonist Esther's mother encourages Esther to take shorthand instead of trying to be a poet. Esther rejects this, seeing shorthand as a sure way into a subservient lifestyle.<br />
<br />
== Secretary as extension of self ==<br />
<br />
What is particularly interesting about the secretary as a medium was the focus on her appearances, or 'poise.' While secretarial handbooks emphasize fast typing and shorthand skills along with organizational skills, each book has lengthly sections on the presentation of a secretary. As is expected, secretaries had dress requirements like we do today in offices, but even more requests on the attributes of secretaries were made. For example, a desired quality among secretaries was a pleasing voice, and to smile. Becker encourages secretaries to be 'phonogeninc' while on the telephone, at least until "television becomes a practical commercial reality" for telecommunications (73). Particular posture was requested--"Draping yourself about furniture, or leaning against files or doors as if they were lampposts is similarly condemned" (Becker 106)--and only pale nailpolish acceptable. One secretary recommends wearing blue frequently, as "[m]en almost universally like blue" (103). <br />
<br />
Manners were also essential, and women were thought to be much better at mannered speech and behavior than men, and more adept at being 'channels.' Edward Kilduff explains, "In so far as any general statement can be true, male secretaries are more likely not to possess suitable manners than are female secretaries; perhaps because it is man's nature to be more unrestrained and more independent than women, perhaps because men are not so sensitive to the effects of manners as women are and hence do not appreciate their value." Men, essentially, made bad mediums because they are too independent, more productive, <br />
<br />
The work a secretary did, particularly letters, were not signed by secretaries but rather bosses, and it was important that they and their work was reflective of their employers. The secretary, ideally, was to be involved, but not necessarily thought of as a 'producer' of content--only visible as an extension rather than authority:<br />
"Letters are an expression of an executive's personality. Don't you, as a secretary, quickly spot any flaws that come to your employer's desk? Don't you judge other secretaries and their employers by the kind of letters they mail from their offices?" (Becker 11)<br />
<br />
The ideal secretary was one who was trustworthy with private data, efficient, reliable, and attractive. She, as one employer describes in ''Secretaries Who Succeed'', served as "an extension of my own brain" (37). This sentiment has been echoed in the present with new technologies such as the iPhone, Blackberries, and laptops--all of which similarly serve as both status symbols, secret-keepers, transmitters of data, and as extensions of one's consciousness.<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<br />
Becker, Esther R. ''Secretaries Who Succeed''. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1947.<br />
<br />
Charters, W. W. and Isadore B. Whitley. ''Summary of Report on Analysis of Secretarial Duties and Traits.'' New York: The National Junior Personell Service, Inc., 1924.<br />
<br />
Doutt, Howard M. ''Secretarial Science''. Chicago: Richard D. Irwin, Inc., 1944.<br />
<br />
Kilduff, Edward Jones. ''The Private Secretary''. New York: D. Appleton-Century Company, 1924.<br />
<br />
Pitman, Isaac. ''New Standard Dictation Course.'' New York: Pittman & Sons, 1933.</div>Torpillehttp://www.cultureandcommunication.org/deadmedia/index.php?title=Secretarial_Letter_Dictation&diff=5910Secretarial Letter Dictation2008-11-05T20:31:43Z<p>Torpille: /* References */</p>
<hr />
<div><br />
== Basics of secretarial positions ==<br />
<br />
Secretarial work, in one form or another, has existed since writing has existed; scribes were the first incarnation, followed by clerks. With the commercialization of the typewriter in the late 1800s and their adoption in the 1900s, record-keeping and composition became increasingly integral to modern businesess and organizations. Speedwriting and stenography along with typing skills sped up the process of bureaucracy and were delegated to women, particularly young women, in the 1900s. <br />
<br />
The origins of the word secretary are generally agreed to be related to secret-keeping and trust. According to Edward Jones Kilduff, the word secretary "has its origin in common with the word secret, for both are derived from the Latin word secretus, which means private, secret, or pertaining to private or secret matters. Hence came the general definition of secretary as a person who is intrusted with private or secret matters; a confidential officer or attendant; a confidant" (Kilduff 3).<br />
<br />
== Secretary as mediums ==<br />
<br />
In a sense, secretarial work is a kind of 'medium' in and of itself. Secretaries receive communications from all types of sources; it is up to the secretary to determine which communications are the most pressing, and which do not deserve attention, and forward the important communications to the boss. Communications between businesses, especially letters, were not usually written by the businesspeople themselves--rather, the businessperson would speak (dictate) what was in the letter while the secretary/stenographer would write in shorthand what her supervisor dictated, and then type the letter on a typewriter with correct 'form,' meaning correcting any grammatical errors, formatting, spelling, detail work, etc. Essentially mail communications would go from a businessman to his secretary to another secretary to the businessman she represented. This was also true of phone calls and visitors: all communications had to pass through the secretary before reaching the intended recipient.<br />
<br />
Secretaries themselves still exist, but their duties have changed drastically due to email communications, word processing, and various other technologies. Letter dictation in particular is now incredibly rare, perhaps because of the common use of word processing technologies which drastically reduce the time needed to compose documents. Like the demise of the scribe due to increased literacy and printing, the stenographic duties of the secretary have diminished due to computing technologies. However, stenographers (using stenographic typewriters) are still in use in the legal system alongside voice-to-speech technology in case of computer failure.<br />
<br />
== Stenography in secretarial duties ==<br />
<br />
Stenography, or the practice of transcribing spoken word, was essential to the duties of a secretary, and a fast speed (usually of 100 words per minute), was desirable. "Except in the instances of college graduates, of persons who have received a specialized training in secretarial work, and of those who posesss some exceptional qualification (a knowledge of financial matters or the ability to write well, for example), it is very difficult to obtain a position as a real private secretary without first having served an apprenticeship as a stenographer" (Kilduff 358).<br />
<br />
The importance of stenography, and particularly accurate stenography, for the secretary was expressed by George E. Roberts, vice president of National City Bank of New York City, "If my stenographer is not wholly accurate and dependable in transcribing her notes--her share of this mutual work--the effectiveness of my letter suffers. Through carelessness she has made me appear to say things I did not say, she has inclined my reader to the belief that I am ungrammatical, and by her inaccuracies in typing she has caused my letter to make an unfavorable impression. [...] Letter writing is an important function in business, and is becoming of greater importance because of the fact that transactions carried on by means of letters are rapidly increasing in number. The personal contact between a business house and its customers that existed in former years is being supplanted by a contact by letters. And all of this means that we must today make our letters more efficient. To do so we must enlist the coöperation of our stenographers to perform efficiently their share of the work of getting out good letters--letters that are accurate in transcription, correct in spelling, grammar, and punctuation, and pleasing in appearance" (Kilduff 13). This excerpt suggests that secretaries only copied exactly what was written, but frequently part of their duty was to correct wording, phrasing, and grammar, and know all of the correct formats, sort of like what Microsoft Word does with its Paperclip helper.[[Image:http://content.answers.com/main/content/wp/en-commons/thumb/a/ab/300px-Eclectic_shorthand_by_cross.png]]<br />
<br />
Many different types of speedwriting and shorthand exist, including the Pitman and Graham styles. College courses on shorthand were a popular choice for young women, and considered to be very practical. An example of this is in Sylvia Plath's novel ''The Bell Jar'', in which the Plath-based protagonist Esther's mother encourages Esther to take shorthand instead of trying to be a poet. Esther rejects this, seeing shorthand as a sure way into a subservient lifestyle.<br />
<br />
== Secretary as extension of self ==<br />
<br />
What is particularly interesting about the secretary as a medium was the focus on her appearances, or 'poise.' While secretarial handbooks emphasize fast typing and shorthand skills along with organizational skills, each book has lengthly sections on the presentation of a secretary. As is expected, secretaries had dress requirements like we do today in offices, but even more requests on the attributes of secretaries were made. For example, a desired quality among secretaries was a pleasing voice, and to smile. Becker encourages secretaries to be 'phonogeninc' while on the telephone, at least until "television becomes a practical commercial reality" for telecommunications (73). Particular posture was requested--"Draping yourself about furniture, or leaning against files or doors as if they were lampposts is similarly condemned" (Becker 106)--and only pale nailpolish acceptable. One secretary recommends wearing blue frequently, as "[m]en almost universally like blue" (103). <br />
<br />
Manners were also essential, and women were thought to be much better at mannered speech and behavior than men, and more adept at being 'channels.' Edward Kilduff explains, "In so far as any general statement can be true, male secretaries are more likely not to possess suitable manners than are female secretaries; perhaps because it is man's nature to be more unrestrained and more independent than women, perhaps because men are not so sensitive to the effects of manners as women are and hence do not appreciate their value." Men, essentially, made bad mediums because they are too independent, more productive, <br />
<br />
The work a secretary did, particularly letters, were not signed by secretaries but rather bosses, and it was important that they and their work was reflective of their employers. The secretary, ideally, was to be involved, but not necessarily thought of as a 'producer' of content--only visible as an extension rather than authority:<br />
"Letters are an expression of an executive's personality. Don't you, as a secretary, quickly spot any flaws that come to your employer's desk? Don't you judge other secretaries and their employers by the kind of letters they mail from their offices?" (Becker 11)<br />
<br />
The ideal secretary was one who was trustworthy with private data, efficient, reliable, and attractive. She, as one employer describes in ''Secretaries Who Succeed'', served as "an extension of my own brain" (37). This sentiment has been echoed in the present with new technologies such as the iPhone, Blackberries, and laptops--all of which similarly serve as both status symbols, secret-keepers, transmitters of data, and as extensions of one's consciousness.<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<br />
Becker, Esther R. ''Secretaries Who Succeed''. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1947.<br />
<br />
Doutt, Howard M. ''Secretarial Science''. Chicago: Richard D. Irwin, Inc., 1944.<br />
<br />
Kilduff, Edward Jones. ''The Private Secretary''. New York: D. Appleton-Century Company, 1924.</div>Torpille